Political Inquiry Terms and Definitions

Research Design * near(a) pass, bad investigate * Involves connecting theory and information. * Maximising leverage by mathematical function very few inconstants to explain many effects. * Reports on the degree of conclusion of results. * Shows admittedly causal relationship, non just correlation coefficient. * Provides accu deem info and accounts for an new(prenominal)(prenominal)(a) variables. * Determines if the relationship is uni organizeional. * affair of research * To establish a relationship betwixt two or much variables * To demonstrate that the results ar gener tout ensembley true in the real world and non in just a particular context. To reveal whether unitary phenomenon precedes anformer(a) in clipping, establish age range * To eliminate as many alternative expositions for the discovered decision as possible * Choice of human body * What affects * Is research exploratory, descriptive or explanatory * What be the hard-nosed limitations in inves tigating hypothesis. * entropy-based externalize * Classical experimental design, 2 classifys, pre and post thronevas, hit-or-missization, * Simple post great dealvas only post examen * Repeated vizor out design, measure how hanker effect expunges to counterbalance. Multiple pre and post tests. Multi grouping design, more(prenominal) than 2 groups, commode examine different levels of experimental variable. * Randomised Field experiments, applies logic of randomisation and variable manipulation * Non-randomised quasi-experiments. Purposeful plectron, tar catch a certain group. * Non-experimental design angiotensin converting enzyme group, no control over assignment and application of IV, inability to measure DV. * Case mull over small N designs. Provide exposit explanation * Comparative analysis comp be two or several(prenominal) units in relative detail * Focus group gather in mannequination approximately re exertionion to certain IV. Surveys large procedur e of large number deliberate to rise up causal relationships. * Aggregate info analysis variables argon averages or percentages of geographic beas, find causal relationships. * Longitudinal designs, clip span. * Trend analysis metre on uniform variables at different time periods to examine deepens. * circuit card analysis fol kickoffs a group of participants. * Intervention analysis measurement of change in the DV is discover and taken before and after. No inter promption, mere observation. * Ethnographies form of information collection by means of participant observation, consultations and hesitancynaires.Field studies * Content analysis textual analysis, count of recordings, written. * What they prevail in common * They all sh atomic list 18 the staple fiber objectives of research design despite having different levels of natural and external hardship. exploitation several designs together impart cover for each one opposites shortfall. * They all attemp t to draw sound conclusions supported by evident prove * impairment * Causal vs spurious * Both show correlation mingled with IV and DV, but in spurious the change in DV beca ingestion 3rd factor cause changed in two. Causal is a direct relationship. 5 different relationships. Multiple causes without chain.Multiple causes with chain. Multiple causes that affect DV, but argon changed with the conception of another variable. Spurious causality with antecedent variable. Chain causality with interfere variable. * Covariation * Demonstrates that the IV does in fact covary with DV. Not causal relationship yet. * era order * Show that the IV precedes DV. Effect crappernot appear before cause. * alternate causes * Confounding factors. Factors that possible cause a change in DV as well. * Randomised controlled experiments * Experiments that al pathetic the investigator to control the exposure to the IV through assignments to groups.Selection and grouping all randomised. * Experime ntal design * The way in which the researcher controls exposure to test IV. 5 different designs. * Control group * The group of subjects that does not receive experimental treatment or test stimulus. * Pre-test * beat of the DV prior to administration of IV or experimental treatment. * Post test * Measurement of the DV after administration. * Internal vs external severeness * Internal validity is the ability to show that manipulation or variation of the IV really causes change in DV. * External validity is the ability to generalise from one set of research findings to other situations. History * A threat to versed validity. Events other than the experimental stimulus that occur between pretest and posttest measurements. * Along with evolution * Testing * When measuring the DV prior to the stimulus alerts the subjects of the research objectives. * Selection influence * Bias due to the assignment of subjects to experimental and control groups according to few criterion and not randomly. A threat to internal validity. * Experimental mortality rate * A differential loss of subjects from experimental and control groups that affects the equivalency of groups threat to internal validity * Instrument decay A change in the instrumentate utilize to measure the DV, like different researcher conducting pretest and posttest. * Demand characteristics * Aspects of the research situation that cause participants to guess at the investigators goals and adjust their behaviour or surveys accordingly. difficult to help. * Simple post test * alike(p) to classical. Experimental group exposed but control not, only post test is conducted. * Repeated measure design * Contains several pre and post test measurements to love exactly how quickly the effect of the independent variable should be observed or how reliable pretest measurement of DV should be taken. Multi-group design * There are more than one experimental r control group created so different levels of the IV put forward be compared. cornerstone involve both pre and post test or just one. * Field experiments * They are experimental designs that are applied in a natural setting. Adopts logic of randomisation and variable manipulation. * Non-experimental design * They are designs that do not follow the experimental model of two groups and have controlled exposure to IV. They are more practical to do but are not as strong in terms of establishing causal relationships. * Case pack * Comprehensive and in reconditeness study of a hotshot case or several cases.Provide detailed explanations * Comparative analysis * Comparing between two or several units in relative detail * Focus group * Often use to observe reactions to the introduction of the IV. Has a group of people who meet at a single location * Surveys * Measurement of DV and IV at the same time. Respondents report their exposure to various factors. No assignment to groups, examines groups basd on set of IV, measurement of DV to empathi ze divergences between groups. * Aggregate data analysis * Variables that are displayed as averages or percentages, to find causality. Trend analysis and longitudinal design * Measurements on same variables at different time periods to see the changes caused by the IV on the DV. No manipulation of variables. Multiple measurements. * Panel study * A study that follows a group of participants where the same units are measured at different times. * Panel mortality * Refers to the participants in the panel study who drop out. Rate? * Intervention analysis. * Looks at the occurrence of the IV as an observation. Looking at the DV before and after IV. Works outdo when IV happens in a design period in time and brief in nature.Measure only before and after event. Literature Review * Purpose of Literature review, 7 * To see what has and has not been investigated * To bump general explanations for observed variations in a behaviour or a phenomenon * To identify say-so relationships betwe en concepts and to identify researchable hypothesis * To subscribe to how others have defined and measured break concepts * To identify data sources that other researches have used * To sustain alternative research designs * To discover how a research project is link to the work of others. * What constitutes a books review It is made of different pertinent articles that provide more insight into topic * It should help arrive at a good research topic * It should show what has and has not been researched * It provides a general explanation for variations in behaviour or phenomenon * It identifies researchable topics * It should help develop alternative research designs * Best rules for collecting literature * Using electronic databases like JSTOR, Web of Science and Google Scholar. * Searching by topic and key terminology, slowly limiting results, read the articles and find new linguistic process to narrow-minded down the search. Searching by starting with a single article. part data base to find more relevant articles or other articles written by the same author. role the citations in that first article. remember articles that have cited the first article. * Best ways to write a literature review * It should rely on scholarly sources * It moldiness relate at once to topic * Have to become familiar with as much of the research before selecting the final sources. * Summarising of relevant literature that focuses on over-arching topics sort of than single articles. * Compiling all articles into something that makes sense. * Organising the topics ased upon the research doubtfulness. * Identifying common themes or methodologies across the articles. * treatment of conventional wisdom, illustrating how current politics has changed and identifying the flaws in past research. seek * Terms * Population * all case or observations covered by a hypothesis, all the units of analysis to which a hypothesis applies. * warning * A subset of observations or cas es draw from a specified people. * Sample statistics * The estimator of a creation characteristics or attribute that is visualized from ingest data * Advantages and disadvantages of renders Advantages * It is cheaper and less time consuming as compared to using nation * More convenient. * Disadvantages * They can be less accurate or more given up to actus reus * whatsoever studies do not use sample diffusion, like case studies. * Population line of groundsing * A characteristic or attribute of a commonwealth that can be quantified. * Estimator * A statistic based on sample observations that is used to cast the numeric revalue of an un make do population parameter. * Element * A particular case or entity about which information is collected, the unit of analysis. When to use a sample * Practicality. When data from an extremely large population is required, it is insufferable to interview or approach each and every subject. Thus sampling is require because although th e sample statistics will not exactly equal the give set, they will be reasonably close if sampling is done correctly. * consume frame * The particular population in which the sample is actually drawn from. * Random digit dial purpose of and how and why it works * It is a procedure used to improve the representativeness of telephone amples by giving both heared and un bring uped numbers a play of extract. * It is used to overcome the problem of cell phone numbers which are unlisted * It works by randomly dialling numbers. * It works because it gives all numbers, whether listed or not a chance to get dialled. * Sampling unit * The entity listed in a sampling frame. by chance same as an portion or group. * Sample turn * The bias that occurs whenever some parts of a population are consistently excluded from a sample. It is commonly due to an incomplete sampling frame or a non-probability method of selecting elements. Probability sample types, pros and cons * Sample for whic h each element has a known probability of being included in the sample * Types * Simple random samples each element has an equal chance of being selected. * Pros each element has an equal chance of being selected. * Cons * It is not truly random, small poses of survival might appear. * Obtaining a list of the entire population is not possible, decrease the probability. * Systemic samples elements are selected from a list at predetermined intervals * Pros It is easier to get into than simple random. * Useful when dealing with a very large population size. * Cons * may result in biased sampling if elements on the list have been ranked according to a characteristic. The list contains a pattern that corresponds to the sampling interval. * Stratified samples elements sharing one or more characteristics are grouped and elements are selected from each group in proportion to the groups representation in the total population * Pros * Homogeneous populations, small sample seize is neede d to achieve accuracy. * Cons Heterogeneous populations need a much larger sample to be accurate. * Proportionate samples differentiate samples where each stratum is represented in proportion to its size in the population. * Pros * very(prenominal) representative of the population * Cons * Not good with heterogeneous populations * Disproportionate samples stratified samples in which elements sharing a characteristic are under-represented or over-represented. * Pros * When the sample size is too small, can be used to increase it easily. * Cons * may not be representative of the population if weight factor is not used. Cluster samples the sampling frame initially consists of clusters of elements * Pros * Used when no list of elements comprises and to create one would be too expensive. * Reduces field work be * Cons * There is greater imprecision. Samples are not representative of population. * Non-probability samples types, pros and cons * Each element has an foreigner probabili ty of being included in the sample * Types * nonrandom samples when a researcher exercises considerable discretion over what observations to study. * Pros * lowlife learn more from carefully selected unusual cases. Cons * Not accurately representative of population. * thingmabob sample elements are included because they are convenient and on the loose(p) for the research to select * Pros * Convenience * Large numbers easy to get * Cons * inglorious accuracy * Quota sample elements are sampled in proportioned to their representation in the population. * Pros * Similar to proportionate sampling, but subjects chosen purposefully. * Cons * Selection bias * Snowball sample arrangeers are used to identify other persons who might qualify for inclusion into the sample * Pros Good for relatively selective and rare populations * Relationship between samples and statistical inferences * Statistical inferences is the mathematical theory and techniques for making conjunctures about the un known characteristics of the population based on samples. Making inferences about a population. * Trying to define more clearly what supportable means * Samples provide an estimate of population attributes and may be off from the true population parameter. The difference is the level of precision lost. * 3 types of errors in inference Expected values or sampling error * Expected value is the average value of a sample statistic based on repeated samples of the population. * Sampling error is the difference between a sample estimate and a equal population parameter that arises because only a portion of the population is observed * Standard errors * The standard deviation or measure of a variance or dispersion of a sampling distribution * Provides a numerical indication of the variation in sample estimates * Sampling distributions. A conjectural non-observed distribution of sample statistics calculated on samples on size N that, if known, permits the calculation of confidence interv als and the test of statistical hypothesis * Describes the mean, variation and incarnation of the distribution that is based on an one by one and randomly drawn population. * It allows researchers to calculate the probability that sample statistics fall within certain distances of the population parameter. * Sampling error * the difference between a sample estimate and a corresponding population parameter that arises because only a portion of the population is observed * Standard error The standard deviation or measure of a variability or dispersion of a sampling distribution * Provides a numerical indication of the variation in sample estimates * authorization * How much error this is in a sample. The degree of belief or probability that an estimate range of values includes or covers population parameter. * Sample distribution * Describes the mean, variation and shape of the distribution that is based on an independently and randomly drawn population. * Sample size. * 100 (11% + /-) * 600 (5% +/-) * 1000 (4% +/-) * 1500 (3% +/-) 4000 (2% +/-) notices * Terms * numeric vs qualitative data * Quantitative data involves a large amount of data and its involves numeric manipulation * Qualitative data involves small number of cases, more in depth and it relies on quotations, comments, anecdotes and other written evidence to support arguments * Both seek to explain trends or patterns through consistently collected data. * Data collection, how do we hold the go around way, characteristics of * How to choose the best way * Depends on the wonder * Depends on the sample Depends on which constitutes the best measures, validity of the measurements that a particular method will allow. * Depends on be and availability, some are more observable than others, some less expensive. * Depends on the reactivity to the collection by the population. * Consider ethical implications. * Characteristics * Primary and secondary data * IRB, what role it plays and the significance of it * Institutional review board, a must for any test involving human subjects. * It is guided by 3 principles respect for persons, beneficence and justice. The role it plays s to ensure that all research conducted will not ill-treat any individuals, recognise that they are autonomous and on that point is distribution of benefits to participants. To ensure that no ethical boundaries are crossed. * Its significance is that it has take all unethical research to be done, but this limits the way data is collected. Thus researchers must consider the benefits vs the burden of the research. * Observation, types and pros and cons basic distinction is direct and indirect. * Direct * Allows researchers to view things in natural setting more very much than laboratory. Field study or ethnography. Observation in lab gives more control over environment * Pros * inbred settings allow people to act normally, increases validity * Researchers can observe for longer periods of time * Lab can give more control. * Cons * Lab can also mean that subjects know they are being observed and thus alter behaviour, low validity * Natural setting cannot control external effects and variables. * Indirect * Observation of physical traces of behaviour, essentially detective work. Inferences are made based on physical traces * cardinal types of measures * Erosion Created by selective wear on some material. Looking at what has been eroded or removed, looking at what is left. * Accretion * Measures a phenomenon a manifested through the deposition and accumulation of materials. visual perception what has built up. * Pros * It raises less ethical issues than direct * Some materials or traces of them are more/less durable than other, making them more/less easy to measure, depending on the method. * Less obtrusive, much cheaper than alternatives * Cons * There are many threats to validity, prone to measurement problems * Can be difficult to make strong inferences * instrumentalist Most fie ld studies involve this, proverbial fly on the wall. detect people for long periods of time. Assume a role or individuation within the group. * Pros * Gain deep access into the group through informants * Natural setting * Observe for long periods so changes in behaviour can be studied * Has a degree of accuracy and completeness that other methods cannot provide. * Cons * It is not viable for every question, some things are just unobservable, like right to vote * Lack of control over the environment, inability to isolate factors * May be invalid or biased, going native.Becoming part of the environment, perceived biased. * Difficulties with replication of study * Non participant * Same as direct. * Overt * Participants are aware of the investigators carriage and intentions * Covert * Investigators presence is hidden or undisclosed. * Structured * Investigator looks for and systematically records the incidence of detail behaviours * Unstructured * All behaviour is considered relev ant, at least at first, and recorded. * Ethical issues and how to avoid * Negative repercussions from associating with researcher because of the researchers sponsors, nationality or outsider status. Invasion of privacy * Stress during research interaction * Disclosure of behaviour or information to the researcher resulting in harm to the observed during or after the study. * How to avoid ethical proofreading * Assume everything and all identities will be discovered * Look at actual words in manuscript * When describing potentially unflattering things go from general to specific * Be general about community at hand * shit that data and research will be used again * get laid what perspective and attitude is towards subject * Caution subjects multiple times realise study limitations and agreement are in advance * Have other people edit sensitive portions. Document analysis * Types of records, pros and cons of utilization * ii types of records * Running produced by organisations rat her than private citizens, carefully stored and easily accessed and is functional for long periods of time. * Pros * starting time cost in terms of money and time. * approachability * Covers more extensive period in time. * Extensive amounts of records * Many records are digitalised * Cons * At the mercy of those who keep the records, may or may not be biased. Questions on recording keeping practices, may not be kept properly. * Episodic records that are produced and exertd in a more casual, personal and accidental manner. Diaries and memoirs. Important to political historians. * Pros * Used to illuminate phenomena rather than generate large sample * Provides different perspectives on certain phenomena. * Use qualitatively. * Cons * Gaining access to episodic records can be difficult, locating suitable materials is the well-nigh time consuming aspect of data collection * Many are not digitalised. Content analysis, procedures, pros and cons, intercoder reliableness * Refers to t he use of excerpts, quotes, and examples from recorded documents to support and observation. * Can be both qualitative and quantitative in nature. * Procedures * Decide on appropriate sample, what materials to include in the analysis. * Define the recording or secret writing units, decide what is actually going to be measured. * Choose categories of content that are going to be measured, deciding the recording unit. How to measure what you want. Code words? Devise a system of enumeration for the content being coded, a numeric system based on what is being coded. Code for number of times X appears. * Pros * Gives researchers access to subjects that would otherwise be difficult to attain. * au naturel(p) data are usually nonreactive, no undesired influences on behaviour. * indite records like newspapers have existed over long periods in time * They can be easily attained * It often enables us to increase sample size above what would be possible though either interviews or direct ob servation . * The cost of keeping records are borne by the keepers, it is low cost for those using them. Cons * Selective survival, record keepers may not preserve all pertinent materials, only selectively. Gaps may exist * Incompleteness. Gaps may exist due to fires losses of other types * Content may be biased. May be incomplete, selectively preserved, inaccurate or falsified * Unavailable to researchers because they are classified. * They overleap a standard format because it is kept by different people. * Intercoder reliability * Refers to when two or more coders, using the same procedures, agree on how the content is analysed.The more times the coders make the same conclusions the same way, the more claims can be made. * Written records, pros and cons * Pros * Can be used when other means like direct observation or interviews are not possible. * Able to use for large scale collective behaviour, cannot possibly interview all. * Raises fewer ethical issues than observation or i nterviewing. * No risk to individuals as long as they are not identified in records. * Cheaper than other forms. * Not affected by time or history, what is recorded cannot be changed. * Cons * Gaining access may be difficult, classified Records not kept properly, or purposefully changed Survey research and interviews * definition and difference * surveys are a method of data collection that acts as an alternative to experiments or simulations. * alternatively of manipulating an independent variable to view its effects, survey design examines the relationship between variables, better at establishing correlation rather than causation. * Types of surveys, pros and cons, * Personal, bet to compositors case * eminent cost * heights to medium outcome rate * Potentially soaring sample congruousness * Long to medium aloofness * superior data bear on cost * Telephone Medium cost * Medium completion rate * Medium sample congruity * Medium to short length * High to low data processi ng cost * Mail * Low cost * Low completion rate * Medium sample congruence * Medium to short length * Medium data processing cost * Email * Low cost * Depends but low completion rate * Low sample congruence * Medium to short length * High to low data processing be * Internet * Low costs * Depends but low completion rate * Low sample congruence * Medium to short length * High to low data processing costs * Group administration * Very low costs * High once group is convened completion rate Depends on group selection process, sample congruence * Variable length * High to low data processing costs * Drop off/pick up. * Very low costs * Low completion rate * Low sample congruence * Short length * Low data processing costs. * Completion and solvent rates, significance of * Refers to the proportion of persons initially contacted who actually participate. * When the proportion of the persons contacted who actually participate is too low, the ability to make statistical inferences about t he population is hold * Too little responses, cannot make inferences. * Cost * Time and money. Have to counterbalance between costs and completion rate. * Data processing * Answers of the surveys still have to be tabulated. All data need to be coded in a way that a computer can process them. * puzzle with liberal ended questions. Have to be transcribed and coded. * A major reason for adopting internet and telephone surveys. * Sample-population congruence * Refers to how well the sample subjects represent the population from which they are drawn * Biases can enter through the initial selection of respondents or through incomplete responses. * The closer the congruence, the more representative the sample, higher(prenominal) validity. Length * Too long and respondents lose interest or start answering without care, get distracted. * Too short and not enough data is collected. * Well motivated participants can help with the problem. * result quality * Cannot take the responses at fa ce value. * Participants may not have the same interests or familiarity with certain topics. * People may be reluctant to express their opinions to strangers. * concern people wont answer truthfully. * Interview bias * Occurs when the interviewer influences the respondents answers, may have a larger effect on telephone surveys than in person surveys. Question types and wording, what to be careful for and why, pros and cons * Close-ended questions * Pros * Easier for people to answer and takes little time * Easier to sort and tabulate data * tippy issues are better paired with close ended questions * Cons * Force respondents to choose from a list they may not agree with * Single sided and threefold sided questions that can affect responses * Single side, agree or disagree with a statement * Two sided, gives two alternative statements to choose. Problems of recall versus recognition, can speedy answers that would have otherwise been blank. People dont know the answer but recall wh en seeing the choice. * Oversimplified and distorted picture of public opinion * Open-ended questions * Pros * Allows respondents to state what they know and think. * Good for situations where likely answers are not known. * Cons * Respondents may respond too much or too little. * Problem with recording answers, tedious and difficult to code, interpretations vary as well. * Processing data is time consuming. * Wording Wording is important, question clarity is vital to get valid responses. Objectivity and clarity * Avoid * Double barrelled questions * Two questions in one. Sometimes participants might not agree with first question but is made to in order to answer the second. * Ambiguous questions * unmatched that contains a concept that is not defined clearly. * Participants may interpret the question wrongly. * Leading questions * Reactive question. Encourages respondents to choose a particular response because the question indicates that the researcher expects it. * Giving what t he researcher wants, validity is off. Push polls. * Question order and effects * The order in which questions are presented may influence the reliability and validity of answers. Participants any answer differently or stop when they see certain questions. Can solve response set. * Branching questions * A question what sorts respondents into subgroups and directs them into different parts of the questionnaire * Filter questions * A question that screens respondents from inappropriate questions. * Response set * Straight line responding. * May occur when a serial of questions have the same answer choices.Check the first few, then blindly check the rest. * Archives surveys, pros and cons * Existing surveys that have been designed in the past and are readily available to use. * Pros * Very cheap, for those with no access to funding. * Less time is spent designing the surveys. * More reliable and higher quality, widely used thus more reliable. * Well written questions. * Cons * The ques tions are not what you want. * Interviews, definition, pros and cons. * Interviewing is the act of asking individuals a series of questions and recording their responses.May be face to face or over the phone. * Pros * Sometimes asking questions is the only way * Elites can provide valuable information, but only through interviews. Focused interviews. * Can provide more comprehensive and detailed information, rich variety of perspectives. * superior form of data collection in exploratory studies. * Cons * Can be difficult to administer * Have to take into account non-verbal cues and be unbidden to go off topic * Detailed note taking * face to face, strong necessity for interpersonal skills.