Human Nervemuscle Interaction Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Human Nervemuscle Interaction - Essay Example When the threshold potential or firing level was reached, an action potential was created causing Na++ influx. This in turn made the inside of the cell more positive causing it to be depolarized. This action potential was propagated along the entire length of the nerve by salutatory conduction. As the nerve nears its termination, it loses its myelin sheath and divides into terminal buttons. The action potential caused the voltage-gated Ca++ channels to open resulting in Ca++ influx. The Ca++ then triggered the synaptic vesicles containing the neurotransmitter (in this case, acetylcholine (AcH)) to fuse with the plasma membrane causing it to release its contents to the neuromuscular (NMJ) junction. The AcH then fused with the nicotinic receptors on the motor end plate of the muscle consequential in the opening of Na++ channels. This created an end plate potential until it reached its threshold potential and brought about the potential to be conducted away in both directions along the muscle fiber. The potential traversed down the T- tubules and reached the sarcoplasmic reticulum. The end plate potential caused a conformational change in the dihydropyridine receptor (DHPR) which initiated the ryanodine receptor (RYR) to release the Ca++ (Berne, et.al, 2006). The Ca++ then binds with the Troponin C, causing exposure of the active site in the actin. The myosin head then attached to the active site, and with ATP, performed a "power stroke" causing shortening and contraction of the muscle. This is the contraction seen when the thumb moves towards the palm (abduction). However, the contraction seen as a response to the electric stimulation is not tetanic, meaning it is not sustained; therefore a relaxation period occurs as well. In order for the muscle contraction to stop, the Ca++ attached to the Troponin C must be sequestered back to the sarcoplasmic reticulum. This is done by the Ca++ -Mg++ ATPase. Only when there is cessation of the interaction between actin and m yosin can muscle relaxation occur. Consequently, in order for repolarization of the motor end plate, the AcH that has attached to the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors on the motor end plate is broken down by acetylcholinesterase, which hydrolysis Ach to acetate and choline. Re-uptake of these products then occurs by the pre-synaptic neuron for synthesis of new AcH. 2.) The normal nerve conduction velocity for myelinated nerves is 50-60 m/s, depending on the diameter of the nerve and as to its myelination. The greater the diameter size, the faster the conduction velocity. Similarly, myelinated neurons are also faster conductors than unmyelinated neurons. Our results yielded a NCV of 44 m/s which is not within the range but is near the accepted values. Latency or time that the impulse took to travel within the axon is expected to be longer from the elbow compared to the wrist due to the increased distance from the thumb. However, if we are to consider the fiber type of the ulnar nerve, which is an -motor neuron, the NCV that we got was significantly less than the known conduction velocity of 70-120 m/s. Several factors can affect the NCV such as age and temperature. The conduction velocity decreases significantly with decrease temperature and the distal latencies become correspondingly prolonged. (DeLisa, 2005). The standard temperature used in l aboratories is 32oC. It was also found out that the conduction ve

Reflecting on ‘Reflective practice’ Essay Example for Free

Reflecting on ‘Reflective practice’ Essay â€Å"Maybe reflective practices offer us a way of trying to make sense of the uncertainty in our workplaces and the courage to work competently and ethically at the edge of order and chaos†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Ghaye, 2000, p.7) Reflective practice has burgeoned over the last few decades throughout various fields of professional practice and education. In some professions it has become one of the defining features of competence, even if on occasion it has been adopted mistakenly and unreflectively to rationalise existing practice. The allure of the ‘reflection bandwagon’ lies in the fact that it ‘rings true’ (Loughran, 2000). Within different disciplines and intellectual traditions, however, what is understood by ‘reflective practice’ varies considerably (Fook et al, 2006). Multiple and contradictory understandings of reflective practice can even be found within the same discipline. Despite this, some consensus has been achieved amid the profusion of definitions. In general, reflective practice is understood as the process of learning through and from experience towards gaining new insights of self and/or practice (Boud et al 1985; Boyd and Fales, 1983; Mezirow, 1981, Jarvis, 1992). This often involves examining assumptions of everyday practice. It also tends to involve the individual practitioner in being self-aware and critically evaluating their own responses to practice situations. The point is to recapture practice experiences and mull them over critically in order to gain new understandings and so improve future practice. This is understood as part of the process of life-long learning. Beyond these broad areas of agreement, however, contention and difficulty reign. There is debate about the extent to which practitioners should focus on themselves as individuals rather than the larger social context. There are questions about how, when, where and why reflection should take place. For busy professionals short on time, reflective practice is all too easily applied in bland, mechanical, unthinking ways, Would-be practitioners may also find it testing to stand back from painful experiences and seek to be analytical about them. In this tangle of understandings, misunderstandings and difficulties, exactly how to apply and teach reflective practice effectively has become something of a conundrum. This paper explores current ideas and debates relating to reflective practice. In the first two sections, I review key definitions and models of reflection commonly used in professional practice. Then, in the reflective spirit myself, I critically examine the actual practice of the concept, highlighting ethical, professional, pedagogic and conceptual concerns. I put forward the case that reflective practice is both complex and situated and that it cannot work if applied mechanically or simplistically. On this basis, I conclude with some tentative suggestions for how educators might nurture an effective reflective practice involving critical reflection. Defining reflective practice †¦reflection can mean all things to all people†¦it is used as a kind of umbrella or canopy term to signify something that is good or desirable†¦everybody has his or her own (usually undisclosed) interpretation of what reflection means, and this interpretation is used as the basis for trumpeting the virtues of reflection in a way that makes it sound as virtuous as motherhood. Smyth (1992, p.285) The term ‘reflective practice’ carries multiple meanings that range from the idea of professionals engaging in solitary introspection to that of engaging in critical dialogue with others. Practitioners may embrace it occasionally in formal, explicit ways or use it more fluidly in ongoing, tacit ways. For some, reflective practice simply refers to adopting a thinking approach to practice. Others see it as self-indulgent navel gazing. For others still, it  involves carefully structured and crafted approaches towards being reflective about one’s experiences in practice. For example, with reference to teacher education, Larrivee argues that: â€Å"Unless teachers develop the practice of critical reflection, they stay trapped in unexamined judgments, interpretations, assumptions, and expectations. Approaching teaching as a reflective practitioner involves fusing personal beliefs and values into a professional identity† (Larrivee, 2000, p.293). In practice, reflective practice is often seen as the bedrock of professional identity. â€Å"Reflecting on performance and acting on refection†, as McKay (2008, Forthcoming) notes, â€Å"is a professional imperative.† Indeed, it has been included in official benchmark standards laid down for professional registration and practice (see table 1 in Appendix 1). One example is in the way it has been included, explicitly and implicitly, in all Project 2000 curricula for Nursing Diplomas, while reflection is highlighted as a pivotal skill to achieve required Standards of Proficiencies in nursing and other health professional education (NMC, 2004; HPC, 2004). It has also become a key strand of approaches to the broader field of continuing professional development, work-based learning and lifelong learning (Eby, 2000; HPC, 2006). Given its growing emphasis in professional practice and education, it would seem important to explore the concept of reflective practice in some detail. To this end, this section distinguishes between different types of reflective practice and looks at the sister concepts of reflection, critical reflection and reflexivity. Reflection ‘in’ and ‘on’ practice Dewey (1933) was among the first to identify reflection as a specialised form of thinking. He considered reflection to stem from doubt, hesitation or perplexity related to a directly experienced situation. For him, this prompted purposeful inquiry and problem resolution (Sinclair, 1998). Dewey also argued that reflective thinking moved people away from routine thinking/action (guided by tradition or external authority) towards  reflective action (involving careful, critical consideration of taken-for-granted knowledge). This way of conceptualising reflection crucially starts with experience and stresses how we learn from ‘doing’, i.e. practice. Specifically Dewey argued that we ‘think the problem out’ towards formulating hypotheses in trial and error reflective situations and then use these to plan action, testing out our ideas. Dewey’s ideas provided a basis for the concept of ‘reflective practice’ which gained influence with the arrival of Schon’s (1983) ‘The reflective practitioner: how professionals think in action’. In this seminal work, Schon identified ways in which professionals could become aware of their implicit knowledge and learn from their experience. His main concern was to facilitate the development of reflective practitioners rather than describe the process of reflection per se. However, one of his most important and enduring contributions was to identify two types of reflection: reflection-on-action (after-the-event thinking) and reflection-in-action (thinking while doing). In the case of reflection-on-action, professionals are understood consciously to review, describe, analyse and evaluate their past practice with a view to gaining insight to improve future practice. With reflection-in-action, professionals are seen as examining their experiences and responses as they occur. In both types of reflection, professionals aim to connect with their feelings and attend to relevant theory. They seek to build new understandings to shape their action in the unfolding situation. In Schon’s words: The practitioner allows himself to experience surprise, puzzlement, or confusion in a situation which he finds uncertain or unique. He reflects on the phenomenon before him, and on the prior understandings which have been implicit in his behaviour. He carries out an experiment which serves to generate both a new understanding of the phenomenon and a change in the situation. (Schon, 1983, p. 68) For Schon, reflection-in-action was the core of ‘professional artistry’ – a concept he contrasted with the ‘technical-rationality’ demanded by the (still dominant) positivist paradigm whereby problems are solvable through the rigorous application of science. A contemporary example of this paradigm is the evidence-based practice movement, which favours quantitative studies  over qualitative ones, and established protocols over intuitive practice. In Schon’s view, technical-rationality failed to resolve the dilemma of ‘rigour versus relevance’ confronting professionals. Schon’s argument, since taken up by others (e.g. Fish and Coles,1998), was as follows: Professional practice is complex, unpredictable and messy. In order to cope, professionals have to be able to do more  than follow set procedures. They draw on both practical experience and theory as they think on their feet and improvise. They act both intuitively and cr eatively. Both reflection-in and on -action allows them to revise, modify and refine their expertise. Schon believed that as professionals become more expert in their practice, they developed the skill of being able to monitor and adapt their practice simultaneously, perhaps even intuitively. In contrast, novice practitioners, lacking knowing-in-action (tacit knowledge), tended to cling to rules and procedures, which they are inclined to apply mechanically. Schon argued that novices needed to step back and, from a distance, take time to think through situations. Whether expert or novice, all professionals should reflect on practice – both in general and with regard to specific situations. Schon’s work has been hugely influential some would say ‘canonical’ – in the way it has been applied to practice and professional training and education. For example, in the health care field, Atkins and Murphy (1993) identify three stages of the reflective process. The first stage, triggered by the professional becoming aware of uncomfortable feelings and thoughts, is akin to Schon’s ‘experience of surprise’ (what Boyd and Fales, 1983, identify as ‘a sense of inner discomfort’ or ‘unfinished business’). The second stage involves a critical analysis of feelings and knowledge. The final stage of reflection involves the development of a new perspective. Atkins and Murphy argue that both cognitive and affective skills are prerequisites for reflection and that these combine in the processes of self-awareness, critical analysis, synthesis and evaluation (see Appendix 2). In the education field, Grushka, Hinde-McLeod and Reynolds (2005) distinguish between ‘reflection for action’, ‘reflection in action’ and ‘reflection on action’ (see Appendix 3). They offer a series of technical, practical and critical questions for teachers to engage with. For example, under reflection for action teachers are advised to consider their resources and how long the lesson will take (technical); how to make the resources relevant to different learning styles (practical); and to question why they are teaching this particular topic (critical). Zeichner and Liston (1996) differentiate between five different levels at which reflection can take place during teaching: 1. Rapid reflection immediate, ongoing and automatic action by the teacher. 2. Repair – in which a thoughtful teacher makes decisions to alter their behaviour in response to students’ cues. 3. Review – when a teacher thinks about, discusses or writes about some element of their teaching. 4. Research – when a teacher engages in more systematic and sustained thinking over time, perhaps by collecting data or reading research. 5. Retheorizing and reformulating – the process by which a teacher critically examines their own practice and theories in the light of academic theories. While Schon’s work has inspired many such models of reflection and categories of reflective practice, it has also drawn criticism. Eraut (2004) faults the work for its lack of precision and clarity. Boud and Walker (1998) argue that Schon’s analysis ignores critical features of the context of reflection. Usher et al (1997) find Schon’s account and methodology unreflexive, while Smyth (1989) deplores the atheoretical and apolitical quality of his conceptions. Greenwood (1993), meanwhile, targets Schon for downplaying the importance of reflection-before-action. Moon (1999) regards Schon’s pivotal concept of reflection-in-action as unachievable, while Ekebergh (2006) draws on  phenomenological philosophy to argue that it is not possible to distance oneself from the lived situation to reflect in the moment. To achieve real self-reflection, she asserts, one needs to step out of the situation and reflect retrospectively (van Manen, 1990). Given this level of criticism, questions have to raised about the wide adoption of Schon’s work and the way  it has been applied in professional practice and education (Usher et al, 1997). There have been calls for a m ore critical, reflexive exploration of the nature of reflective practice. Reflection, critical reflection and reflexivity Contemporary writing on reflective practice invites professionals to engage in both personal reflection and broader social critique. For example, work within the Open University’s Health and Social Care faculty has put forward a model whereby reflective practice is seen as a synthesis of reflection, self-awareness and critical thinking (Eby, 2000) (see figure 1). In this model, the philosophical roots of reflective practice are identified in phenomenology (with its focus on lived experience and personal consciousness) and also in critical theory (which fosters the development of a critical consciousness towards emancipation and resisting oppression ). Self-awareness Roots: phenomenology The cognitive ability to think, feel, sense and know through intuition To evaluate the knowledge derived through self-awareness to develop understanding Reflection Roots: existential phenomenology and critical theory -interpretive and critical theory tool for promoting self- and social awareness and social action improving self-expression, learning and co-operation links theory and practice Reflective Practice Critical thinking Roots: scepticism and critical theory identifying and challenging assumptions challenging the importance of context to imagine and explore alternatives which leads to reflective scepticism Figure 1 Skills underpinning the concept of reflective practice. Other authors argue for the concept of critical reflection, which is seen as offering a more thorough-going form of reflection through the use of critical theory (Brookfield, 1995). For adherents of critical reflection, reflection on its own tends to â€Å"remain at the level of relatively undisruptive changes in techniques or superficial thinking† (Fook, White and Gardner, 2006, p.9). In contrast, critical reflection involves attending to discourse and social and political analysis; it seeks to enable transformative social action and change. For Fook (2006), critical reflection  Ã¢â‚¬Å"enables an understanding of the way (socially dominant) assumptions may be socially restrictive, and thus enables new, more empowering ideas and practices. Critical reflection thus enables social change beginning at individual levels. Once individuals become aware of the hidden power of ideas they have absorbed unwittingly from their social contexts, they are then freed to make choices on their own terms.† Fook and Askeland argue that the focus of critical reflection should be on connecting individual identity and social context:  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Part of the power of critical reflection in opening up new perspectives and  choices about practice may only be realized if the connections between individual thinking and identity, and dominant social beliefs are articulated and realized.† (Fook and Askeland, 2006, p.53). For Reynolds (1998), four characteristics distinguish critical reflection from other versions of reflection : (1) its concern to question assumptions; (2) its social rather than individual focus; (3) the particular attention it pays to the analysis of power relations; and (4) its pursuit of emancipation (Reynolds, 1998). By way of example, Reynolds argues that when managers critically reflect (rather than just reflect) they become aware of the wider environment in which they operate. They begin to grasp the social power exercised by their organisation through its networks and relationships. : In the field of teaching, Brookfield (1995) characterises critical reflection as ‘stance and dance’. The critically reflective teacher’s stance toward teaching is one of inquiry and being open to further investigation. The dance involves experimentation and risk towards modifying practice while moving to fluctuating, and possibly contradictory, rhythms (Larrivee, 2000). A key concept giving momentum to the idea of reflective practice involving both personal reflection and social critique is reflexivity. Reflexive practitioners engage in critical self-reflection: reflecting critically on the impact of their own background, assumptions, positioning, feelings, behaviour while also attending to the impact of the wider organisational, discursive, ideological and political context. The terms reflection, critical reflection and reflexivity are often confused and wrongly assumed to be interchangeable. Finlay and Gough (2003, p. ix) find it helpful to think of these concepts forming a continuum. At one end stands reflection, defined simply as ‘thinking about’ something after the event. At the other end stands reflexivity: a more immediate and dynamic process which involves continuing self-awareness. Critical reflection lies somewhere in between. Previously, I’ve proposed five overlapping variants of reflexivity with critical selfreflection at the core: introspection; intersubjective reflection; mutual collaboration; social critique and ironic deconstruction (Finlay, 2002, 2003). These variants can similarly be applied to  distinguishing between the types of reflection practitioners could engage in when reflecting on practice. Reflective practice as introspection involves the practitioner in solitary self-dialogue in which they probe personal meanings and  emotions. Intersubjective reflection makes the practitioner focus on the relational context, on the emergent, negotiated nature of practice encounters. With mutual collaboration, a participatory, dialogical approach to reflective practice is sought what Ghaye (2000) calls a ‘reflective conversation’. Here, for example, a mentor and student, or members of a team, seek to solve problems collaboratively. Reflective practice as social critique focuses attention on the wider discursive, social and political context. For instance, the practitioner may think about coercive institutional practices or seek to manage the power imbalances inherent in education/practice contexts. Finally, reflective practice as ironic deconstruction would cue into postmodern and poststructural imperatives to deconstruct discursive practices and represent something of the ambiguity and multiplicity of meanings in particular organisational and social contexts. At the very least, a critical and possibly satirical gaze could be turned to challenging the ubiquitously unreflexive rhetoric of reflective practice. In practice, introspection is the dominant mode of reflective practice. Sometimes presented as merely a promising personal attribute (Loughran , 2006), it is a predominantly individualistic and personal exercise (Reynolds and Vince, 2004) in which practitioners tend to focus on their own thoughts, feelings, behaviours and evaluations. This passes as legitimate ‘reflective practice’ which professionals then can use to advance their cause to fit formal requirements for continuing professional development. While such reflective practice may take place in dialogical contexts such as supervision sessions, the onus stays on the individual practitioner to reflect upon and evaluate their own practice. What is lacking is any mutual, reciprocal, shared process. Institutional structures and quality assurance  systems encourage, perhaps even require, this individual focus. It starts early on during professional education and training where learners engage professional socialisation and are taught how to reflect, using structured models of reflection. One of the consequences of the lack of consensus and clarity about the concept of reflective practice is the proliferation of different versions and models to operationalise reflective practice.

St Augustine and classical education Essay -- essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Saint Augustine and Classical Education   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In Saint Augustine’s deeply personal work, Confessions, he shares the story of his life up to his eventual conversion to the Christian faith. His odyssey through life is, at times, one of bitter inner conflict between his intellect and faith. Augustine’s classical education had a profound affect on the way he viewed the world, and eventually had a major affect on the way he approached Christianity. He is definitely an â€Å"intellectual† Christian, and viewed many aspects of his faith from this perspective. Augustine’s attitude towards classical literature and thought was at times slightly self-contradictory. It is clear, however, that although he was grateful for the education he was given, it was not necessary to his conversion. At many points throughout his life, his education actually seemed to hinder his flight towards Christianity.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Augustine continually incorporated Bible verses and passages into his own writing, artfully blending the Scriptures in with his own views. His attitude toward intellect is best illustrated by this short passage in Corinthians: â€Å"For the foolishness of God is wiser than man’s wisdom, and the weakness of God is stronger than man’s strength†¦ but God chose the foolish things of the world to shame the wise; God chose the weak things of the world to shame the strong† -(Corinthians 25-28) Augustine believed that the pursuit of wisdom without recognizing the importance and the power of God was useless. In his view it was a sin for a man to have that much pride and arrogance about his own intellect. Augustine recalled that as a very young man he himself succumbed to excessive pride. He fervently desired the recognition and prestige that came with being an accomplished rhetorician. He â€Å"squandered the brains [God] gave [him] on foolish delusions.† (I, 37) Augustine considered his pursuit of worldly wisdom a futile effort at this point in his life because he did not fully understand the meaning behind what he was learning. â€Å" I read and understood by myself all the books that I could find on the so-called liberal arts, for in those days I was a good-for-nothing and a slave to sordid ambitions. But what advantage did I gain from them? I read them with pleasure, but I did not kno... ...p of faith.† He knew then that he had to leave part of his philosophical pursuits behind and commit himself fully to Christ. â€Å"For I felt that I was still the captive of my sins, and in my misery I kept crying ‘How long shall I go on saying, â€Å"tomorrow, tomorrow†? Why not now? Why not make an end of my ugly sins at this moment?’† (VIII, 177)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Augustine then heard a child say â€Å"Take it and read, take it and read,† and he interpreted that as a divine command to pick up the Bible. He read the first section he opened to, Paul, and made the decision to become a celibate and devoted servant of God. Augustine was a rationalist man throughout the work, and yet his most defining moment is one of pure faith. Only after years of personal struggle did Augustine arrive at his own religious revelation. This ultimately made his conversion much more profound. To fully and eloquently express himself and his thoughts was essential to his writings. Clearly, he used his knowledge of rhetoric and the arts to express his views more effectively. His prose is both immaculate and powerful. The result was a masterpiece that greatly affected the growth of early Christianity.

The Matrix Essay -- essays research papers

<a href="http://www.geocities.com/vaksam/">Sam Vaknin's Psychology, Philosophy, Economics and Foreign Affairs Web Sites It is easy to confuse the concepts of "virtual reality" and a "computerized model of reality (simulation)". The former is a self-contained Universe, replete with its "laws of physics" and "logic". It can bear resemblance to the real world or not. It can be consistent or not. It can interact with the real world or not. In short, it is an arbitrary environment. In contrast, a model of reality must have a direct and strong relationship to the world. It must obey the rules of physics and of logic. The absence of such a relationship renders it meaningless. A flight simulator is not much good in a world without aeroplanes or if it ignores the laws of nature. A technical analysis program is useless without a stock exchange or if its mathematically erroneous. Yet, the two concepts are often confused because they are both mediated by and reside on computers. The computer is a self-contained (though not closed) Universe. It incorporates the hardware, the data and the instructions for the manipulation of the data (software). It is, therefore, by definition, a virtual reality. It is versatile and can correlate its reality with the world outside. But it can also refrain from doing so. This is the ominous "what if" in artificial intelligence (AI). What if a computer were to refuse to correlate its internal (virtual) reality with the reality of its makers? What if it were to impose its own reality on us and make it the privileged one? In the visually tantalizing movie, "The Matrix", a breed of AI computers takes over the world. It harvests human embryos in laboratories called "fields". It then feeds them through grim looking tubes and keeps them immersed in gelatinous liquid in cocoons. This new "machine species" derives its energy needs from the electricity produced by the billions of human bodies thus preserved. A sophisticated, all-pervasive, computer program called "The Matrix" generates a "world" inhabited by the consciousness of the unfortunate human batteries. Ensconced in their shells, they see themselves walking, talking, working and making love. This is a tangible and olfactory phantasm masterfully created by the Matrix. Its ... ... people the same way that the Universe triggers a time sensation in us. Something does happen OUT THERE and it is called the Matrix. In this sense, the Matrix is real, it is the reality of these humans. It maintains the requirement of the first type of flow of data. But it fails the second test: people do not know that it exists or any of its attributes, nor do they affect it irreversibly. They do not change the Matrix. Paradoxically, the rebels do affect the Matrix (they almost destroy it). In doing so, they make it REAL. It is their REALITY because they KNOW it and they irreversibly CHANGE it. Applying this dual-track test, "virtual" reality IS a reality, albeit, at this stage, of a deterministic type. It affects our minds, we know that it exists and we affect it in return. Our choices and actions irreversibly alter the state of the system. This altered state, in turn, affects our minds. This interaction IS what we call "reality". With the advent of stochastic and quantum virtual reality generators - the distinction between "real" and "virtual" will fade. The Matrix thus is not impossible. But that it is possible - does not make it real.

History of civil rights movement Essay

Civil rights movement can be described as the non violent protests against something that the public feels does not auger well with them. Dierenfield, (2004, pp 23) differentiates civil liberties and civil rights by describing the former as entailing the right of every citizen to receive fair treatment from his government whereas the latter, he says involves citizens gunning for fair treatment from their fellow citizens and local authorities. Therefore, civil rights can also be described as social rights. However, the mammoth effects of the civil rights movement against slavery and the more conspicuous civil movements against racial segregation have taken credit for defining the term. This paper discusses the civil rights movement in the US by tracing its history, the key leaders involved and how their activities influenced the American government of the time. History of civil rights movement Civil rights movement are most famous in the US between 1955 and 1965 where there happened numerous historical accounts led by civil rights leaders protesting against racial segregation in the US more so in the south. The leaders were mainly black who were protesting against mistreatment by their white counterparts who by then treated them as second class citizens. Key activists Martin Luther King This is definitely one of the most renowned African American leaders in fighting for equal rights for African Americans living in the US who were mainly descendants of early slaves. He is most remembered for leading the Montgomery bus boycott among other protests. This Montgomery bus boycott is recorded to have officially started on 1st December 1955. The boycott involved the black American living in that area boycotting using the city buses unless they were allowed to sit anywhere they wanted to sit in the bus instead of the area specifically set out for the blacks. The boycotts were triggered by the arrest of one woman Rosa Park who had defied giving up her sit to a white person in the bus. Having the fronts seats reserved for whites sonly, Rosa Parks defied the order o give up her seat and was subsequently arrested for that. Rosa Parks This is one woman who the US congress came to nickname the â€Å"mother of modern-day civil rights movements† (Boyd, et al 2004, pp 125). As said above, her defiance into giving in to mistreatment in the public transport system triggered the massive boycotts which were to last more than a year until their pleas were heard. Her arrest was even against t the law which she claimed to have observed. A 1900 law on segregation in the buses by race allowed the setting up of specific areas for blacks and whites in the bus but did not give specifications as to force one to vacate his/her seat for another in case there were no more seats. However, custom and culture and mis-configured the law and interpreted it for the benefits of the whites. Park was charged in a court of law and was found guilty but some of her friends bailed her out (Boyd, 2004, pp 125). The same friends who bailed Park out formed an organization by the name Montgomery Improvement Association to spearhead the boycotts and among the leaders was Martin Luther King Jr. Black churches were used in communicating about the boycott which was to last exactly 381 days. The public transport buses stood idle as 75% of the commuters had decide to either walk or used blacks operated taxis (Dierenfield, 2004, pp 23). The bus companies were making losses and thus they had also to join the blacks in calling for the abolition of the law on segregation in order to save their businesses. Leaders of the movement such as Martin Luther King had their homes torched by segregationists and their families threatened. The United States Supreme Court, on13th November 1956 outlawed racial segregation on buses operating within the individual states and cities. The court order was received with a lot of celebration in Montgomery on December 20, 1956, and the bus boycott ended the very next day. King did not stop there. He went ahead and met with President John F Kennedy who was also for equal rights for blacks. Unfortunately, changing the constitution to outlaw segregation by race was not that simple. Other protests were planned to push for what they believed was naturally theirs by the virtue of being a human being and an American citizen. The bus boycott had planted a seed of freedom in blacks. Since the need of the boycott, many cases wee reported where blacks were being accused of disrespecting the segregation laws or the Jim Crow’s laws as they were famously known. Other protest marches were also organized by Martin Luther and other fellow activists. The major ones being the Birmingham March, The freedom rides, The Washington march among many others (Dierenfield, 2004, pp 23). Unfortunately, the man was later to be assassinated due to his civil rights activities. Many of these subsequent marches turned violent with the local authorities and civil segregationists turning violent towards the protesters. One of the most violent march was the Birmingham march which involved children aged from 6 to 18. The local authorities used fie extinguisher hoses to chase the children out of Kelly Ingram Park where they had gathered. Many were injured and over 950 of them arrested. Jails were packed to the brim as more protests and arrests followed. The police had no other wise but to watch in despair as the marches took over the lives of everyone. Business was down and the economy of Birmingham was at a standstill. Finally, the Birmingham community had to give in. They allowed integration in the city’s eating counters and even offer equal employment services to the blacks (Boyd, 2004, pp 125). Medgar Evers This man specifically sought to have equal education rights for the blacks in America. Being a former army man during the Second World War, he felt his denial of entry at University of Mississippi Law School was race based which was not in harmony with his acceptance in the army as a full American citizen. He therefore challenged racial discrimination in education centers. The man also organized massive boycotts against gas stations that could not allow blacks and whites share restrooms (Newman, 2004, pp 164 ) Working under the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), Evers had more avenues for airing his views. He therefore also organized campaigns for the blacks to be registered as voters. His attempt to have his friend admitted to the University of Mississippi attracted the intervention of the federal government after he had been denied entry on racial basis. Many interventions were to follow and more and more blacks found their way in to university. The whole process was to change on how blacks felt about themselves and even motivated them to seek integration in other areas and receive fair treatment as equal citizens with their white counterparts. Unfortunately, the man was also to be assassinated 1962 due to his involvement in the civil rights movement. However, his legacy of no violent protests and equal education rights were to be observed and remembered up to now. The culmination of all these deaths, arrests, marches and protests was the passing of the civil rights act of 1964 which outlawed racial segregation in schools, public places and employment which was introduced by President John F. Kennedy. This act was followed by the civil rights act of 1968 which criminalized discrimination in housing which had prior enforcement in the constitution (Newman, 2004, pp 165)

Harringtons

What are Harringtons claims about the relationship between big business and government in the United States? Do you agree or disagree with them and why? He makes a proposal about one way to begin to address the problem (which he acknowledges is limited and not a complete solution by any means). If you agree that there is a problem, what are other ways (alternatively or in addition to his proposal) it could be addressed? He calls our current system corporate collectivism. He talks to a concept he refers to as trickle down, which is the concept of the government rewarding the corporate rich more than anyone else, and he thinks of it as the ruling policy of America. He believes that the rich makes much more money than everyone else. He even goes as far to suggest that the welfare system does much more for the corporate rich than for anybody else. His belief is that there is a structure of power that dictates pro-corporate outcomes to democratically elected representatives. In conclusion, he believes that the government will on all occasions maximize corporate priorities first and foremost. I dont know if I agree with him, I mean President Clinton didnt come from a rich family, (even though Bush did), but he proved that it is possible to come from a plain background and make the seat. His first job as President was to make a huge tax cut, isnt that for the people? I know that our g! overnment isnt perfect, I might just be young and naive but I dont know if there is this whole hidden conspiracy that Harrington seems to be pointing too. He suggests that we run the Hawkins-Humphrey Full Employment Bill, which would call for the President to make an analysis of all the investment decisions both public and private every year and use this information to figure out what level of unemployment will result. I dont know how much help this plan would be, but I couldn&...

The Issue of Workplace Equity

The Issue of Workplace Equity Introduction Work equity is a major issue affecting most organizations around the world, regardless of whether they are public or private institutions. While everybody prefers being treated equally at workplace, there are numerous cases when employees are not treated with fairness, to a level of public concern.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Issue of Workplace Equity specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Such cases have prompted the formulation of laws in different countries to deal with cases of unequal treatment especially in public organizations. Such laws define the manner in which workers are supposed to be treated, without favoritism in executing leadership or managerial authority (Peetz et al. 406). This paper explores the issue of workplace equity, focusing on a wide-range of aspects like its background, benefits, disadvantages, and challenges among others. Background Workplace equity is a broad aspect of man agement, which ensures that there is fair representation of people in an organization. This therefore means that workplace equity can be described variedly, depending on parameters of representation. In most cases, workplace equity strives to ensure that the minority groups are well-considered in all aspects of employment, starting with the manner in which employees are recruited to how they perform their duties (Peetz et al. 406). In order to comply with laws and create a positive public image, most institutions offer equal chances for men and women in cases where there are vacant positions to be occupied. Even though this is the case, some countries may have cultural beliefs, which limit the opportunities of members of a particular gender. Under such circumstances, women are known to suffer most because nearly all societies limit the opportunities of women. Besides gender, workplace equity ensures that people with disabilities are treated equally with dignity and respect, regardle ss of their physical situations. Since disabled people are limited, it is important for institutions to have a fair approach, starting with recruitment, training, remuneration, and overall relationship between employees and employers.Advertising Looking for essay on labor law? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More People with disabilities can compete effectively if they are provided with the physical aid that they may require (Anenson 1). This ensures that tasks assigned to them are well-done within the provided time. In other words, institutions have the obligation of providing facilities, which promote the effectiveness of disabled people with regard to hiring and performance of different tasks at workplace. Another factor which determines workplace equity is race, especially in cases where the society is made up people from different ethnic backgrounds. In order for this to happen, it is important to consider potential candidates fairly during recruitment, training, and payment. Where equality is not observed, minority ethnic groups may be disadvantaged due to poor representation in different government institutions (Anenson 1). While private organizations may have customized approaches, relating to the hiring of employees and their retention, public firms need to exercise high degree of fairness to the entire country. Although it is not easy for an entire institution to be fair to all employees in every aspect, it is the responsibility of senior managers to be the ambassadors of equity in all their decisions and actions at workplace. Theory of equity The issue of workplace equity has been discussed by various theorists and experts throughout history. Following such surveys and researches, John Stacey Adams proposed ideas, which have found significant application in the understanding of quality at workplace. In his theory, Adams mainly addressed the issue of equity in relation to motivation of emp loyees in an organization. His findings have been found to match with those of other psychologists like Charles Handy and Maslow among other experts in the field (Pravin 316). According to Adams, equity at workplace plays a major role in defining an employee’s attitude towards his or her work. In other words, the theory has a wider view of certain factors that are likely to affect the entire workforce, even though a few people might be directly affected. This can be qualified based on the fact that fairness and equity are defined in comparison with how other employees are treated under the same working conditions. Furthermore, fair treatment motivates workers, because they feel appreciated for their efforts in advancing the aims and objectives of the organization (Pravin 316). In describing workplace equity, Adams focused on what people give and receive in return as inputs and outputs respectively. Inputs may include skills and energy, which employees use in performing their tasks, assigned by the management of the organization (Pravin 316). Nevertheless, such efforts are not offered free-of-charge, especially in cases where a person has been hired to receive outputs after offering specified services.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Issue of Workplace Equity specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In this context, it is equally important that to note that inputs go beyond the number of hours people spend at their workplaces. Similarly, outputs comprise of other factors beyond money, which is viewed by most people as the sole output. The main focus of the theory is the state of those we compare ourselves with in order to establish whether they are treated fairly or not. According to the theory, there are several factors within a workplace, which determine the source of motivation for most people, working in any institution. It is for this reason that people tend to establish a balance betwe en what is given and the reward received as a result of effort and skills. Through comparison with others, people develop better relationships with friends and colleagues as a way of understanding personal fairness at workplace. Most people get affected when they realize that their workmates are being treated in a different manner (Pravin 316). The response is likely to be negative in cases where their colleagues are rewarded with better terms as compared to what they earn. This can be used to understand why employees get discouraged when a section of the workforce is exempted from pay-rise or promotion. In understanding workplace equity, it is essential to note that people respond to unfair treatment at workplace differently, depending on the impact of varied treatment accorded to employees. Discouragement and total hatred are common in cases where a person learns that the kind of rewards offered are less than those given to another group yet they belong to the same professional le vel (Pravin 316). Workplace Equity in Canada Workplace equity is highly encouraged in Canada, to ensure that nobody is treated unfairly for reasons, which are not related to one’s ability. The success of equity starts with identifying various forms of discrimination in public institutions before addressing ways of overcoming them. As mentioned before, women, Aboriginals, and those with disabilities are highly prone to unfair treatment while at work (Zanko 73). In order to promote workplace equity, it is important to establish a way of dealing with the vice and the ability to accommodate people with differences.Advertising Looking for essay on labor law? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Canada is one of the countries with a proud history of workplace equity. In 1970s, the country witnessed wide-spread efforts in support of human rights law, which addressed intentional discrimination. During this time, most Canadians found it hard to secure employment because of existing barriers, which they had to deal with. There was need for a proactive approach in promoting employment opportunities through change of practices and culture (Zanko 73). It was until 1978 that the government introduced an affirmative action for the private sector. Nevertheless, these efforts bore little fruits as it turned out that employers had not initiated programs to deal with workplace equity. As a result, the Royal Commission on Equity in Employment was established, chaired by Judge Rosalie Abella. The commission recommended a mandatory program known as Employment Equity, which recognized women, Aboriginals, and disabled people as the designated groups in the country (Zanko 73). The Employment Equity Act The first Employment Equity Act was ratified in 1986 before it was amended in 1995. The main purpose of the act, which is upheld to-date, is to promote workplace equity in Canada through equal employment and promotion opportunities for all citizens (Catano 80). In essence, the act ensures that there is full representation of the designated groups in public institutions, based on the needs of the market and the availability of those seeking employment. In order for the act to be effectively implemented, employers are required to eliminate all forms of employment barriers against minorities, emanating from unauthorized practices and policies. Additionally, employers are supposed to make adjustments within their systems in order to reflect equal representation within the workforces based on eligibility, geography and qualifications (Catano 80). Even though the sole purpose of establishing the Employment Equity Program is to improve the representation of designated groups in the labor force, it is worth noting that there are benefits, which employers experience as a result of implementing such programs. The following segment discusses some of these benefits. Advantages of workplace equity to employers The first benefit of promoting workplace equity is that it enhances large markets for goods and services. This is based on the fact that the success of any organization or business is based on its continuous expansion of its customer base (Bailyn 97). The rise in globalization in the 21st century has led to a significant shift in demographic trends around the world. An institution, which is committed to expansion, ought to widen its scope of customers and employees in order to take advantage of the growing market. Large markets increase the demand for what is being produced thus creating the need for higher levels of institutional production. Besides the expansion of a country’s market, workplace equity promotes an expanded labor pool to meet the ne eds of the country. For instance, when equal opportunities are given to all the citizens for specific positions, the government gets an opportunity to select the best candidates from a variety of applicants (Bailyn 100). It is paramount to note that minorities in the society may also possess relevant skills, which could be needed in a given sector. However, their skills and knowledge can only be recognized if they are considered during recruitment and equal treatment at workplace. A larger pool of talents ensures that the hiring institution gets a wide-range of options in order to meet the ever-changing needs of the market due to evolving technology and market trends. Another important benefit of workplace equity is that it promotes good public relations. Institutions, which are known for unfair treatment of its employment, are likely to develop a negative public image, which may have far-reaching effects on its performance and future expansion opportunities (Cadrain 44). In most ca ses, citizens are keen to identify with institutions, which seem to address existing employment hardships in the market by offering equal opportunities to potential candidates. As good corporate citizens, such institutions are likely to win the confidence and trust of its employees. Since public institutions carry the image of the government, workplace equity further presents a positive and likeable image of the government. Through such initiatives, citizens are able to witness the commitment of the government in promoting equity among people with different needs in the society (Cadrain 44). As a result, the public would be more patriotic and willing to defend their nation because of the equal opportunities it endeavors to offer within the labor market. Furthermore, workplace equity guarantees better legal benefits, especially in countries where employers are required by law to consider all designated groups of people during hiring and at work. Institutions, which do not comply with the legal requirements, regarding equity, are likely to pay hefty fines or face the punishment recommended by the federal government, which may include sanctions and limited operating space (Budd 2). When an institution remains committed to workplace equity, it means that there will be no complaints from employees and the public. In addition, workplace equity promotes motivation among employees. In other words, they feel recognized by their employers and remain committed to performing their tasks effectively. Besides this, institutions are able to minimize retention costs since employees will be satisfied with working conditions (Budd 2). For this reason, most of them will not have the urge to resign or seek better opportunities elsewhere. As a result, organizations minimize their turnover, thus avoiding unnecessary expenditure on hiring and training of new employees frequently. Besides the retention of employees, workplace equity plays a major role in pulling qualified candidates who get attracted to the organization because of its fair treatment of employees. Talented people usually prefer working in places where they are treated with dignity regardless of their shortcomings. Additionally, they value how their colleagues are treated, in order to establish the company’s fairness in handling its employees (International Labor Organization 63). When talented people get attracted to an organization, high skilled manpower is guaranteed to drive the firm’s performance in a competitive world. This further ensures that labor needs are met with minimal expenses, which are commonly incurred in advertising jobs, hiring, and training. Through such savings, a firm gets an allowance to expand its operations and improve its services without spending a lot of money. Government Role in Workplace Equity In understanding workplace equity, it is imperative to note that it can only be achieved with collective responsibility. In other words, it calls upon the input of the government, individual institutions, and citizens to ensure that employees are treated fairly. For instance, the government’s role ranges from the formulation to the implementation of laws, which promote equity at workplaces in the country. In essence, the government drafts laws, describing the need for workplace equity, designated groups, penalties for defaulters, and the implementation process (International Labor Organization 63). Without such initiatives by the government, it would be hard for institutions to promote equity at different workplaces. Besides formulating laws, which govern workplace equity, the government is mandated to ensure that the laws are followed as stipulated in the act. In other words, no achievements would be realized if no mechanisms are instituted to enhance the implementation process (Zanko 73). In most cases, governments adopt compliance review, which allows institutions to present their progress in terms of workplace equity. Similarly, follow-up compliance review may be undertaken as a way of assessing the efforts initiated by institutions in implementing workplace equity plans. Depending on the provisions of the law, compliance reviews can take place after a definite period of time, say, after every two years or randomly, to ensure that employers remain committed to complying with the law. The government also plays a pivotal role in initiating reviews of the law, in order to address the changing needs of the labor market and the dynamic demographic patterns. Such reviews are important in addressing new issues and eliminating errors, which may have been witnessed during the implementation of the laws (Zanko 73). Moreover, through its implementation, the government takes legal action against those who do not comply with the law through court decisions or fines as stipulated by the law. Such legal actions discourage other institutions from engaging in practices, which go against the law. In addition, the government creates awareness among its citizens in order for them to understand their rights. Public education is therefore necessary in enlightening the public and the employers on the need of having a fair working environment. Through such forums, citizens also realize their responsibility in the overall process of implementing employment equity programs (Zanko 73). Importantly, this education ensures that the public is aware of the designated groups of people, and how they ought to be represented at workplace. In essence, it would be hard for an employee to realize the unfairness of the manager if the rights of workers are not known. On the other hand, an enlightened citizen can easily evaluate the performance of an institution, depending on established parameters. Workplace Equity Challenges Whilst workplace equity has a wide range of advantages, it has been found that its implementation is faced with various challenges, which may vary from one institution or country to another. For insta nce, some institutions resist equity programs because they believe that the quality of people hired is likely to be compromised. While this may be the case, it has been argued that the presence of a limited characterization of potential candidates further complicates the issue (Gottfried and Laura 256). In some cases, employers tend to ignore the immense role of employee diversity during recruitment and the manner in which the management relates with its employees. When qualified candidates do not portray fair representation with regard to existing designated groups, it becomes hard for the institution to comply with employment regulations. This is also based on the fact that one cannot be forced to apply for a given job position, merely because he or she belongs to a minority group. Another challenge emanates from the perception of most disadvantaged people who resist being considered in a special way because of their shortcomings. Others argue that such appointments and promotions are likely to promote stigma and discrimination against the minorities in the society (Gottfried and Laura 256). Since disadvantaged people may have equal needs with other groups of people, there is usually a likelihood of people thinking in terms of favoritism. In this line of thought, promotions done within such a context may be considered to be biased. Implementation of workplace equity challenges also face public and private organizations, some of which may have streamlined command structures. In particular, implementation of such programs highly require the input of senior managers, who have to be convinced exhaustively about the value of intended moves in advancing the agenda of the firm. This has been found to be hard especially in organizations, which are characterized by decentralization and cultural diversity (International Labor Organization 63). When the organization is highly diverse, a single policy on workplace equity may not be effective in promoting equal represent ation of designated groups of people. In some cases, professionals believe in their autonomy, a state, which cannot easily be changed by allowing disadvantaged people to join them. Similarly, most equity efforts around the world face intersectional challenges. For instance, a program, which is aimed at increasing the number of women, may end up recruiting more white women than black (Peetz et al. 406). Furthermore, efforts to promote gender equity face a wide-range of challenges in cases where the workplaces are dominated by men, coming from traditional societies that undermine women. In such a state, it might be hard to convince employees and other managers about the need for gender equality at workplace. Nevertheless, religious diversity equally plays a major role in implementing workplace equity in most parts of the country. This is widely common in cases where faith intersects with sexuality, thus limiting fairness in handling employees. For instance, traditional religionists co nsider homosexuality and gender non-conformity as sinful and harmful. In the event that a workplace is dominated by such employees, who strongly subscribe to religion, it would be hard to accommodate people with contradictory behavior and religious standards (Peetz et al. 406). Even though, there have been efforts to promote equality, discrimination of this nature is still common in most parts of the world. Resistance of this nature is usually strong in cases where the condemnation comes from a traditional Christian or ethno-religious minorities. Workplace Equity and Politics It is evident that politics play a major role in country, especially in making national decisions and formulation of laws. Based on this, it is important to consider the impact of politics in addressing the issue of workplace equity. Leaders of political parties may influence the kind of laws to be ratified in promoting employment equity. Importantly, politicians primarily influence the society through decision s taken by the government in implementing and reviewing workplace equity rules (Peetz et al. 406). It is therefore important for such leaders to understand the need for equity and existing factors to be addressed by managers in public and private institutions when recruiting, promoting and relating with employees. In rare cases, some employees or potential candidates may be discriminated based on their political affiliations. Even though this might be the case, people have the freedom to belong to a given political party without being undermined at their workplaces. The future of Workplace Equity With the changing labor needs and demographic patterns, the world is likely to experience an array of changes regarding workplace equity. This will also be determined by the growing awareness of different designated groups of people in the society and the need of treating them with dignity. For instance, governments around the world identify the classes of people who require consideration d uring recruitments, training, remuneration, and promotions (Bailyn 97). This is likely to be achieved through public awareness, which equally helps minorities to champion their rights in a competitive working environment. Monitoring of public institutions is likely to improve, especially with advanced technology. During follow-up and compliance review, better methods can be employed in order to obtain a more accurate view of how different managers consider employment equity while running public institutions (Anenson 10). A good example would be the use of the internet to carry out online surveys in order to determine the achievements realized in promoting fair treatment of workers. Online surveys may save time since the process does not involve the movement of supervisors from one place to another. Recommendations As seen from the case of Canada, legislation plays a major role in promoting workplace equity in the world. In essence, it gives expansive guidelines on how institutions a re supposed to address the issue of minorities in their labor forces. Of great significance is the need for these legislative statutes to be expanded in order to address the changing demographic patterns like the growing number of lesbians, gay, bisexual and transgendered (Cadrain 44). With regard to compliance, the review should address all questions of representation at all levels within the hierarchy of the institution. Additionally, these legislations ought to be tougher in order to compel institutions to consider equal representation of demographic constituents of a given society or country. Additionally, massive public education is highly recommended in equipping the masses with knowledge about workplace equity. Even though one may belong to a group of minorities, it might not be easy for them to push for their rights in terms of being treated by the employer (Budd 2). Through training forums, people will understand the meaning and implication of workplace equity. Besides equi pping the public, managers need to be trained in order to implement workplace equity laws effectively. This would also help them in understanding the fines and consequences of breaching the law. Conclusion From the above analysis, it is evident that workplace equity remains a debatable issue in most parts of the world. Oftentimes, workplace equity is encouraged to motivate employees and bridge the gap among employees. Of great significance is the fact that workplace equity has a wide-range of benefits, which enhance the performance and growth of institutions. For instance, organizations are able to retain employees, develop a larger market and promote cultural diversity. On the other hand, the process of implementing workplace equity has always been faced with challenges, including cultural and religious differences. Additionally, equal representation of various minority groups may be hampered by the attitude of employees. Nevertheless, the effectiveness of workplace equity can be a chieved through several approaches, including but not limited to training, public awareness, strong legislation, and compliance review strategies. Above all, the success of workplace equity requires collective responsibility for all the parties involved. Anenson, Leigh. The Role Of Equity In Employment Noncompetition Cases. American Business Law Journal 42.1 (2005): 1-63. Print. Bailyn, Lotte. Redesigning Work For Gender Equity And Work-Personal Life Integration. Community, Work Family 14.1 (2011): 97-112. Print. Budd, John. Employment With a Human Face: Balancing Efficiency, Equity, And Voice. New York: Cornell University Press, 2006. Print. Cadrain, Diane. Sexual Equity In The Workplace. HR Magazine 53.9 (2008): 44. Print. Catano, Victor. Recruitment and Selection in Canada. Connecticut: Cengage Learning, 2009. Print. Gottfried, Heidi, and Reese Laura. Equity in the Workplace: Gendering Workplace Policy Analysis. Maryland: Lexington Books, 2004. Print. International Labor Organi zation. Equality at Work: Tackling the Challenge : International Labour Conference 96th Session 2007, Report I. Geneva: International Labour Organization, 2007. Print. Peetz et al. Workplace Effects Of Equal Employment Opportunity Legislation: The Australian Experience. Policy Studies 29.4 (2008): 405-419. Print. Pravin, Durai. Human Resource Management. New Delhi: Pearson Education India, n.d. Print. Zanko, Michael. The Handbook of Human. United Kingdom: Edward Elgar Publishing. Print.

Participant Observation -- Definition

Participant Observation Definition The participant observation method, also known as ethnographic research, is when a sociologist actually becomes a part of the group they are studying in order to  collect data and understand a social phenomenon or problem. During participant observation, the researcher works to play two separate roles at the same time: subjective participant and objective observer. Sometimes, though not always, the group is aware that the sociologist is studying them. The goal of participant observation is to gain a deep understanding and familiarity with a certain group of individuals, their values, beliefs, and way of life. Often the group in focus is a subculture of a greater society, like a religious, occupational, or particular community group. To conduct participant observation, the researcher often lives within the group, becomes a part of it, and lives as a group member for an extended period of time, allowing them access to the intimate details and goings-on of the group and their community. This research method was pioneered by anthropologists Bronislaw Malinowski and Franz Boas  but was adopted as a primary research method by many sociologists affiliated with the Chicago School of Sociology in the early twentieth century. Today, participant observation, or ethnography, is a primary research method practiced by qualitative sociologists around the world. Subjective Versus Objective Participation Participant observation requires the researcher to be a subjective participant in the sense that they use knowledge gained through personal involvement with the research subjects to interact with and gain further access to the group. This component supplies a dimension of information that is lacking in survey data. Participant observation research also requires the researcher to aim to be an objective observer and record everything that he or she has seen, not letting feelings and emotions influence their observations and findings. Yet, most researchers recognize that true objectivity is an ideal, not an actuality, given that the way in which we see the world and people in it is always shaped by our previous experiences and our positionality in the social structure relative to others. As such, a good participant observer will also maintain a critical self-reflexivity that allows her to recognize the way she herself might influence the field of research and the data she collects. Strengths and Weaknesses The strengths of participant observation include the depth of knowledge that it allows the researcher to obtain and the perspective of knowledge of social problems and phenomena generated from the level of the everyday lives of those experiencing them. Many consider this an egalitarian research method because it centers the experiences, perspectives, and knowledge of those studied. This type of research has been the source of some of the most striking and valuable studies in sociology. Some drawbacks or weaknesses of this method are that it is very time-consuming, with researchers spending months or years living in the place of study. Because of this, participant observation can yield a vast amount of data that might be overwhelming to comb through and analyze. And, researchers must be careful to remain somewhat detached as observers, especially as time passes and they become an accepted part of the group, adopting its habits, ways of life, and perspectives. Questions about objectivity and ethics were raised about sociologist Alice Goffmans research methods because some interpreted passages from her book  On the Run  as an admission of involvement in a murder conspiracy. Students wishing to conduct participant observation research should consult two excellent books on the subject:  Writing Ethnographic Fieldnotes  by Emerson et al., and  Analyzing Social Settings, by Lofland and Lofland.

The Reasons Why I Became a Doctor Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Reasons Why I Became a Doctor - Essay Example Later on, I learnt about Pilates, and it became my way of spending my weekends. Since then, my weekends involved attending workshops to learn and develop precise understanding of mechanics of each movement and how that knowledge could help improve the health of the spine. When I joined my accounting profession, I quickly became the person everyone in my office would consult in case of an ailment. It was evident that despite the environment I was in, medicine was part of me. An occurrence in my life changed my whole life for good. I fell sick with an ailment that was not very common with the doctors in the area. It took many doctors’ visits, many hours of traveling and a lot of research to finally identify a practitioner who was a specialist in the illness I had. My encounter with this doctor defined the course I would take in medicine. This was the genesis of naturopathic medicine. This encounter again gave me the motivation I needed to pursue this specific field of medicine. Upon understanding the symptoms of the disease my practitioner cautioned me that the healing of that disease would involve a lot of commitment on me in managing my diet and lifestyle. I was ready to follow the doctor’s advice little did I know that this was the turning point. I was now to quit my job as an accountant and pursue naturopathic medicine. This happened due to the desire that rose in me at that time. In the process of managing my diet, I decided to read further on the condition and the alternate ways of treating it. As I obtained more tips to deal with my condition and my health kept improving I realized my desire for research was growing. This research ignited a fire within me and I now wanted to know about all the illnesses we encounter in our day to day life such as cancer and diabetes. At this point, my illness became the catalyst for positive change.  

Identify and describe the principles of Edwin Sutherland Differential Research Paper

Identify and describe the principles of Edwin Sutherland Differential Association Theory . Select and exaple and apply the Theory - Research Paper Example Legislators could use these theories for introducing legal rules that will prohibit people from crime. An indicative example is the theory of Differential Association of Edwin Sutherland. This theory is based on a series of principles, which are analytically described below referring to studies published in the academic literature. Sutherland first introduced the Differential Association Theory in 1924. The above theorist has been strongly influenced by the sociological theories of that time. He was mostly influenced by the views of Thomas and his theory of ‘the definition of the situation’. The above concept has been the theoretical basis on which the work of Sutherland was based. Sutherland developed his ‘generic theory of crime, the differential association theory, based on specific explanations of ‘law’ and ‘crime’’ (DeLisi et al. 216). This has been the main point at which the theory of crime of Sutherland – or else the differential association theory – has been differentiated from the work of other theorists in the specific field. A key characteristic of the theory of Sutherland is that it is not a concept that can be used periodically, independently from the life conditions, for the explanation of criminal behavior. It is rather involved in the course of life (DeLisi et al. 217). Another important element of the specific theory is its extensive reference to terms, like ‘attitudes and self-concepts’ (DeLisi et al. 217). In accordance with the theory of Sutherland, the criminal behavior cannot be characterized as a personal characteristic, i.e. it is not a type of behaviour inherited. Instead, it is learned, through the social interaction. In other words, the theory of Sutherland emphasizes on the importance of the social environment for the potential development of criminal behavior (DeLisi et al. 217). However, through this point of view, it can be assumed

Graduating College Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Graduating College - Essay Example Additionally, it examines the message being conveyed and its effectiveness as used by the author. This paper makes a rhetorical analysis of a piece of work written by Rodney Smith, examining the effectiveness of the various styles used by the author and the intended message. The item, â€Å"Yes, A College Education is Worth the Costs† was written by Rodney Smith, who after being compelled by the situations in his upbringing, thought that having a college education was an important step and process for any person, since it opens that person to the many adventures and opportunities of life (Smith para 6). Rodney comes from a family that values education as an important and effective investment that gives many people opportunities in life. Rodney’s father was helped to pursue his education by his grandma, who thought that having this education would help him make his life in the most effective way. Initially, his grandfather was of the opinion that he undertakes faming, but the pressure from his grandmother ensured that he pursued his education, managing to get a law degree that made all the difference in his life and family. In this case, it becomes evident that the author of the text seems to have a firm understanding and awareness of the need for education and that his support is not founded on misconceptions. After analyzing this text, it is evident that Rodney, the author of this text had an implied purpose for writing this text. The goal of this writer in making this text is actually to convince those that do not see any value in education about its significance. This can be understood from the way, he gives detail to the path to his education. Explaining how his grandma had to convince his grandpa to invest in educating his dad. After graduating with a law degree, his father realized that by educating his children, they would also have a better life. Rodney understands that many people exist who do not see any

Research Methods-Planning and Evaluating Research based on a Essay

Research Methods-Planning and Evaluating Research based on a Questionnaire - Essay Example The effectiveness of the selection process relies on the amount of knowledge on the researchers’ hands concerning sampling (Cohen & Lea, 2004). The sample population should be enough to address the issue at hand and as a researcher, one should avoid biased sample sizes ensuring that the sample size is neither excessive nor small. Questionnaires can be administered and be distributed in a number of methods depending on the study’s scope. The different ways in which questionnaires can be distributed includes using postal services, telephone, electronic, and through personal administration or self-reports. All the methods used in the distribution of questionnaires as pointed out depend on the scope of the survey undertaken in terms of costs and time (Kalof & Dan et al., 2008). Administration of questionnaires to a sample in far locations is best distributed according through postal, telephone, and electronic mode. The three methods are effective in cost reduction while at the same time ensuring the researcher gets the input of respondents in far areas (Patton & Patton, 2002). However, the most effective form of distribution is through personally administered questionnaires or self-reports. This method involves the interviewer or researcher administering the questionnaires to the respondent physically. Th e physical presence of a researcher is important in the provision of guidance and clarification to respondent while at the same time ensuring they establish a rapport with their respondents (Patton & Patton, 2002). Self-reports and personally administered questionnaires yield high response rates in comparison to other modes of distribution and thus researchers should ensure they use it as a tool for research. Likert scales are important components of research especially when conducting a survey with the aid of questionnaires. The scale can be described as an ordered scale where respondents are availed with options to

Case study on neisseria meningitidis Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

On neisseria meningitidis - Case Study Example It is a human specific pathogen and is gram negative and aerobic in nature. The bacterium is enveloped with a carbohydrate capsule that is covered with polysaccharides attached to its surface. The chromosome of neisseria meningitides has a chromosome 2.0 and 2.2 mega base and contains about 2000 genes. According to CDC (2012)â€Å"Neisseria species, such as N. lactamica. The organism has both an inner (cytoplasmic) and outer membrane, separated by a cell wall’ the outer membrane contains several protein structures that enable the bacteria to interact with the host cells as well as perform other functions. When the meningitis progresses it invades the subarachnoid space of the brain and thus cause inflammation of the meninges. But before this enters this space, they multiply significantly within the blood stream. According Klee (2000,pg .2083-95)â€Å"Neisseria meningitidis colonizes the nasopharynx, from which it can seed the bloodstream before crossing the blood-brain barrier (BBB) to cause meningitis†. The meningitis is diagnosed with the help of conventional and real time PCR assay which can detect bacterial meningitis pathogens. The PCR technology is used typically to detect the causative agent in a suspected case of bacterial meningitis. The assays concurrently works on the DNA extracted from the clinical specimen or isolate. As per Bennett (2008,pg.1764-65) â€Å"PCR-based assays for the rapid individual detection and identification of meningococcal serogroups 29E, X, and Z. The ctrA gene, exclusive to meningococci and forming part of the capsule biosynthesis locus, was chosen as the PCR target†. According to NHS(2013) â€Å"The Hibergene Meningococcal LAMP assay by HiberGene Diagnostics Ltd. is a molecular test for rapid diagnosis of meningitis or septicaemia caused by Neisseria meningitides (meningococcal). It can be used on samples of blood and/or cerebrospinal fluid†. The HiberGene Meningococcal LAMP assay uses loop-mediated

Research Methods-Planning and Evaluating Research based on a Essay

Research Methods-Planning and Evaluating Research based on a Questionnaire - Essay Example The effectiveness of the selection process relies on the amount of knowledge on the researchers’ hands concerning sampling (Cohen & Lea, 2004). The sample population should be enough to address the issue at hand and as a researcher, one should avoid biased sample sizes ensuring that the sample size is neither excessive nor small. Questionnaires can be administered and be distributed in a number of methods depending on the study’s scope. The different ways in which questionnaires can be distributed includes using postal services, telephone, electronic, and through personal administration or self-reports. All the methods used in the distribution of questionnaires as pointed out depend on the scope of the survey undertaken in terms of costs and time (Kalof & Dan et al., 2008). Administration of questionnaires to a sample in far locations is best distributed according through postal, telephone, and electronic mode. The three methods are effective in cost reduction while at the same time ensuring the researcher gets the input of respondents in far areas (Patton & Patton, 2002). However, the most effective form of distribution is through personally administered questionnaires or self-reports. This method involves the interviewer or researcher administering the questionnaires to the respondent physically. Th e physical presence of a researcher is important in the provision of guidance and clarification to respondent while at the same time ensuring they establish a rapport with their respondents (Patton & Patton, 2002). Self-reports and personally administered questionnaires yield high response rates in comparison to other modes of distribution and thus researchers should ensure they use it as a tool for research. Likert scales are important components of research especially when conducting a survey with the aid of questionnaires. The scale can be described as an ordered scale where respondents are availed with options to

Socrates and Plato's Apology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Socrates and Plato's Apology - Essay Example Much of this trial is known through Plato’s Apology (Plato, 2009). Socrates is however, innocent of the charges that are levied against him since his beliefs are a practice of his own philosophy, something that was permitted in ancient Greece, and they accept and celebrate the existence of god and the choice of people to follow him or not. His actions, thus, in no way do any harm to the religious structures of Greece. The right to dissent within certain structures was allowed and it is only this right that Socrates exercises in his life and he upholds this right throughout the trial. According to Plato’s Apology, the reason that Socrates cites for his actions is the declaration of the Oracle at Delphi of his superior wisdom over other people. By making this clear, Socrates makes clear his belief in god. The god who is associated with the Oracle of Delphi, moreover is one that is a part of the Greek pantheon of gods. The Oracle of Delphi was associated with Apollo, the s un-god of the Greek pantheon and a very important figure in the mythology of the Greeks. This would make the charges of Socrates’ atheism baseless. By asserting the wisdom of god and his lack of the same, Socrates is able to prove his innocence when faced with the charges of atheism. Socrates points out to the jury that his quest for knowledge and wisdom was essentially based on his belief in his ignorance. This ignorance presented him with a paradox when viewed in the light of the predictions of the Oracle at Delphi (Plato, 2009). An attempt to solve this paradox does not necessarily constitute an offence against god or the laws of ancient Greece. The ideas that Plato and Socrates held regarding ideas and forms entailed the superiority of what lay in heaven rather than what was present on earth (Plato, 2004). This meant that they did not malign god or question the existence of god. What they did during their lives was to affirm the presence of god in a way that was in a lot of ways, scarcely different from existing perceptions. The charges of atheism that were leveled against them were thus, not true and were based on an incorrect or incomplete understanding of their philosophies and theories. Another aspect of the case against Socrates was the allegation that he corrupted the youth with the power of his ‘sophistry’, which in those days meant a glib manner of talking that was designed to persuade a person to perform certain actions. It also had negative connotations in those times. Sophistry was considered to be the practice of the orators of those times who sought to sway the masses and the jury for their own purposes. Socrates distances himself from such accusations right at the beginning by appealing to the jury to look at not his eloquence but at the truth of his statements. Socrates counters this claim successfully by appealing to the jury to look only at the truth of his statements and not at the manner in which it was communicated. He also points out that the perception of his sophistry was built up as a result of the works of people like Aristophanes who sought to mock him with what he perceived to be cheap attempts at comedy. A brief look at the works of Aristophanes would make it clear that the claims made by Socrates in the trial regarding the attempts of people to paint him and his followers in a negative light are true. The novelty of the ideas that Socrates thought of

Reactivity series for common metals experiment Essay Example for Free

Reactivity series for common metals experiment Essay Aim To see if a common metal is reactive or strong enough to replace/push out/displace another common metal from its liquid compound. Hypothesis My prediction will be: the most reactive metal shown by the reactivity series will show if the metal can displace or not the metal in the compound. For example my hypothesis in a reaction of Mg and Pb is that; Mg being a more reactive metal in the reactivity series will displace Pb, a least reactive metal in the series. Equipment 1. A chart with spaces big enough to proceed with the reaction. With the names of each different metals. For obvious reasons put an x from the top left corner to the inferior left corner. 2. A glass bigger than the chart for the paper for protection of it. 3. Each solid metal and metal compound for the reaction: Solid Metals: Magnesium (4), Copper(4), Iron(4), Zinc(4), Lead(4). Liquid Metal Compounds: Copper Sulphate, Iron Chloride, Magnesium Sulphate, Zinc Nitrate, Lead Nitrate. 4. A teat pipette. 5. Another table, but smaller, to record data. Procedure/Method 1. Get all required elements you are going to need, this elements are listed above. 2. Put the glass on top of the table of reactions. 3. Clean all metals, until they are shiny and clean. 4. Place 4 times the same metal on its corresponding column and different square; for all the metals(5). 5. Add carefully with the teat pipette one or two drops of the metal compound indicated directly onto the solid metal. 6. Observe for changes, take into account that if the texture or color are altered, it means that there has been displacement, reaction. 7. Write your observations. 8. Results should be written in a neat table, as tick if there was reaction, X if there was none and ? If not sure. 9. Analyze and conclude from your data. Data Analysis From the table above, we can conclude that the most reactive metal is Magnesium (Mg), since it reacts with all the metal compounds except itself (Magnesium Sulphate). Then will come Zinc (Zn) , reacting with 2 Metal Compounds. Iron(Fe) will be less reactive than Zn and reacting with only 1 Metal Compound. Finally the least reactive Solid Metal will be Copper and Lead, reacting with none metal compounds. Conclusion 1. Write down the order of reactivity you found: Based on the graphic above; the reactivity order i found: 3. Suggest why some squares were marked with an X on the grid. The diagonal squares in the grid from top left hand corner to lower right hand corner were marked with an X because it is pretty obvious that a metal can not displace the same metal on the compound; because it has the same reactivity and atoms on the last shell in the atom. So for example, Copper will not displace Copper on the compound: Copper Sulphate. 4. Referring to your text book. Is there any metal that does not seem to be behaving as its position says it should? Can you find any reasons for this? Well referring to the reaction series there are some metals i found which do not fit in the reaction series, this are Copper and Lead; well copper and lead should not be tied, the reactivity series show that Lead is more reactive than copper, and by this it should be first in the reactivity order. i think there are 2 possible ways to explain why this happens: Since the results we did were not very accurate and Lead and Copper are very close in the reactivity series, maybe we did not noticed the reaction of Lead or Copper, or maybe there wasnt in neither of them, well it is very possible that the reaction of them was not too noticeable to see the difference between them, but even though there was. The other possible way, could be that the metals werent very clean before we tested them, and so this could have altered and prevented a reaction in Lead. Evaluation In general we did a great effort with my teammate in the lab, we applied exactly two drops of the metal compound to the metal solid, tried every metal to be clean , but unfortunately we needed machinery to polish every single metal but we did not had it, we just had to do our best at trying to polish them. Another problem we did had, was to handle the spaces and the arrangement of the metals within their boxes in the lab; well we applied a small square to each experiment, we frequently had the metal compound spreading into other boxes, damaging the fair results of the other experiments. One solution could be to apply bigger spaces and arrange each metal at the center of its box.

Strategic Relations Between China and Pakistan

Strategic Relations Between China and Pakistan STRATEGIC RELATIONS BETWEEN CHINA AND PAKISTAN AND ITS IMPACT ON INDO PAK RELATIONS If your environment is changing, you must change with it. If you dont, you perish. Curtis E. Sahakian CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1. China is a modern developing country with good economic and political condition. It is the biggest ancient society with flair towards modern culture and values. China has very good relations with its neighbours like Pakistan. Pakistan was one of the first countries of the world to recognise China, and since then they have very good relations with each other. 2. Pakistan and China entered into a trade agreement in January 1963 which granted reciprocal Most Favoured Nation status in matters of commerce, trade and shipping. Trade between the border regions of China and Pakistan started in 1969 after the first protocol of trade was signed. This border trade has continued to grow with the patronage of both the countries. Further trade protocols have been signed over the years. The construction of the Karakoram Highway has helped to further trade and communication. Pakistan is an important country for China in trade. A lot of projects of economic development in Pakistan are in process with the co-operation of China which are creating lot ofjobs opportunityfor both Pakistan and China. METHODOLOGY STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM 4. This dissertation proposes to study and analyse the growing economic relations between Pakistan China, its impact on the security of India and to recommend measures to negate the same by India. HYPOTHESIS 5. Is the growing economic relations between Pakistan China having an adverse impact on the security of India? If yes, what actions should India take to negate them? JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY SCOPE 7. This study concentrates on analysing only the Economic relationship between Pakistan and China and the impact of the same on Indo Pak relations with special emphasis on Indias security. 8. The study is not looking into the military, diplomatic and nuclear relationship between the two countries and the impact these relations are having on Indias security and Indo Pak relations. METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION METHODS OF DATA ANALYSIS ORGANISATION OF THE DISSERTATION 11. It is proposed to study the subject in the following manner:- (a) Chapter II. Strategic Relationship and it scope. (b) Chapter III. Historical Perspective of strategic relations between Pakistan and China. (c) Chapter IV. Chinas â€Å"String of Pearls Policy† Pakistans place in it. (d) Chapter V. Growing economic ties between Pakistan and China. (e) Chapter VI. Security Issues for India. (f) Chapter VII. Recommendations to negate this strategic relationship by India. CHAPTER II STRATEGIC RELATIONSHIP AND ITS SCOPE Interest does not tie nations together; it sometimes separates them. But sympathy and understanding does unite them. -Woodrow T. Wilson No nation is an island. Because domestic policies are constantly affected by developments outside, nations are compelled to enter into dialogue with other nations or initiating entities or form alliance(s) for the purpose of enhancing their status internationally, or increasing their power or prestige and survival in the international system[1]. History The concept of strategic relations is quite old. Humans have been establishing governments and communicating with each other for thousands of years. However, it is generally agreed to that international relations truly began to emerge around the 15th century, when people started exploring the world and interacting with other governments and cultures. Organisations like the Dutch East India Company were among the first multinational corporations[2], while representatives of various European governments met with foreign governments to establish trade agreements and to discuss issues of mutual concern. The formal history of strategic relations is often traced back to the Peace of Westphalia of 1648, where the modern state system was developed. Westphalia instituted the legal concept of sovereignty. Westphalia encouraged the rise of the independent nation-state(s), the institutionalisation of diplomacy and armies[3]. This European system was then exported to the Americas, Africa, and Asia via colonisation and the standards of civilisation. The contemporary international system was eventually established through decolonisation after the Cold War. Definition There are many definitions of Strategic Relations written by numerous authors on the web world. Some relevant ones are as given below. Agreement between two or more entities to conduct specified activities or processes, to achieve specified objectives such as product development or distribution[4]. Strategic Relations refers to the collective interactions of the international community, which includes individual nations and states, inter-governmental organisations such as the United Nations, non-governmental organisations, multinational corporations, and so forth. The term is also used to refer to a branch of political science which focuses on the study of these interactions[5]. Strategic Relations is the study of the relations of states with each other and with international organisations and certain sub-national entities (e.g., bureaucracies and political parties). It is related to a number of other academic disciplines, including political science, geography, history, economics, law, sociology, psychology, and philosophy[6]. Strategic Relations is the study of the relations among states and other political and economic units in the international system. Particular areas of study within the field of international relations include diplomacy and diplomatic history, international law, body of rules considered legally binding in the relations between national states, also known as the law of nations[7]. Strategic Relations is the interaction between and among states, and more broadly, the workings of the international system as a whole. It can be conceived of either as a multidisciplinary field, gathering together the international aspects of politics, economics, history, law, and sociology, or as a meta-discipline, focusing on the systemic structures and patterns of interaction of the human species taken as a whole. Barry Buzan Strategic Relations is an area of knowledge based on political science, law, economy, sociology, philosophy, and other social sciences. Traditionally, it not only treats the relations between nation states, but also, International Organisations and non-state actors in the international arena, like non-governmental organisations, and multinational corporations[8]. What do Strategic Relations Mean Strategic Relationship represents the study of foreign affairs and global issues among states within the international system, including the roles of states, inter-governmental organisations (IGOs), non-governmental organisations (NGOs), international non-governmental organisations (INGOs), and multinational corporations (MNCs). It is both an academic and public policy field, and seeks to analyse as well as formulate the foreign policy of a particular state[9]. Apart from political science, Strategic Relations draws upon such diverse fields as economics, history, international law, philosophy, geography, sociology, anthropology, psychology, and cultural studies. It involves a diverse range of issues including globalisation, state sovereignty, ecological sustainability, nuclear proliferation, nationalism, economic development, global finance, terrorism, organised crime, human security, foreign interventionism and human rights. There are two main approaches to the field of International Relations. The first is the Realist or Pragmatist approach. This claims that conflict is inevitable and the best way to approach international relations is to be prepared to engage in conflicts and win. The second approach is the Structuralist approach and is symbolised by diplomacy, according to which conflict is not inevitable, focusing on the causes of conflict, stressing on the costs of conflict vis a vis possible gains. This school of thought has been heavily influenced by Galtungs theory of structural violence[10]. Broadly speaking, the two approaches to International Relations can be attributed to either side of the Atlantic: Realism is seen as a primarily American worldview while Structuralism is seen as typically European. Conclusion Considering the vast spectrum of the subject, Strategic Relations can become incredibly complex. The subject is also sometimes known as â€Å"foreign relations†. Specialists in this field staff diplomatic agencies abroad, provide consultation to businesses which are considering to establish branches overseas, and assist charitable non-governmental organisations with their missions. CHAPTER III HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF STRATEGIC RELATIONS BETWEEN PAKISTAN AND CHINA The opinions we hold of one another, our relations with friends and kinfolk are in no sense permanent, save in appearance, but are as eternally fluid as the sea itself. Marcel Proust Why Pakistan Chose to Align with China Pakistans attitude towards China is determined by its geography, economic constraints, domestic compulsions and the regional and international situation. The erstwhile fragmented shape of Pakistan, i.e. East and West Pakistan, had greatly contributed to the establishment of Pakistans close relations with China. Geographic constraints on account of Pakistans location, topography and the nature of its frontiers, gave rise to security problems for Pakistan. With the construction of highways connecting China and Pakistan, through Pakistan Occupied Kashmir, China acquired an easy approach to Pakistan. This turned out as a mixed blessing for Pakistan. So long as relations with China are friendly, there is no threat from the North. But in case of strained Sino Pak relations, there would be a grave threat from China[11]. Pakistani policy makers were conscious of this constraint and did express their fears in an unambiguous manner. President Ayub Khan wrote in his political autobiography:- West Pakistan is wedged in between three enormous powers with the Soviet Union at the top, the Peoples Republic of China in the North East, and India in the South and East. I know of no other small country which has the somewhat dubious distinction of having three such mighty neighbours[12]. A number of considerations prompted Pakistan to strengthen its economic and trade ties with China. Firstly, like China, Pakistan was a developing country and the two countries faced common problems in the field of agriculture and industrialisation. China had successfully solved the problem of water logging, salinity and floods, which Pakistan could benefit from. Secondly, the aid offered by China was very attractive as it carried rock-bottom low rate of interest or no interest at all. Thirdly, China showed interest in setting up heavy industries in Pakistan Taxila Industrial Complex, assisted by China is an example. Fourthly, trade with China was beneficial to Pakistan as the balance of the trade generally went in favour of Pakistan and rarely in favour of China[13]. Fifthly, 1962 Sino India war turned Pakistan towards China to counter India. Sixthly, US support to India increased after the Sino India war to counter China, this was resented by Pakistan, which China exploited to w ean the influence of US from Pakistan and get a foothold in the Indian subcontinent. And finally, the Kashmir issue. Pakistan adjudged its relations with other countries in terms of their attitude towards the Kashmir issue. Pakistan regarded China as a friend since its hostility towards India in 1962 and its involvement in the Kashmir issue thereafter[14]. The location of Tibet and Xinjiang on the north of the Indian subcontinent places China in a position to intervene militarily in a confrontation between India and Pakistan. The Karakoram Highway can be used by China for sending arms and ammunition and even the forces. In 1971, Indo Pakistan war, it was used for this purpose[15]. With a view to combating India, Pakistan has been seeking a political counterweight against it. Finding that China was interested in undermining Indias political influence in the Afro Asian world, Pakistani leaders thought that China could serve as a counterweight against India. It was, therefore, a Pakistani objective to seek Chinas political support against India[16]. Karakoram Highway[17] History of Sino Pak Relations After Pakistans creation in 1947, Pakistans relations with China were in a dormant state. In 1950, Pakistan officially recognised the Peoples Republic of China, and broke off ties with Taiwan. Bilateral relations were further strengthened at the Bandung Conference in 1955[18], when talks between the two heads of state played an important role in promoting, understanding and paving way for friendly relations and mutual assistance between the two countries. In 1961, Pakistan furthered its relations with China when it voted in favour of Chinas restoration rights in the UN. Sino-Pak relations got a shot in the arm, with deteriorating Sino-Indian relations which resulted in a war in 1962. China and Pakistan consequently met and agreed on the border between them, in 1963[19], and the Karakoram Highway was consequently built, connecting Chinas Sinkiang (Xinjiang-Uygur) Autonomous Region with the Northern Areas of Pakistan. In 1963 itself, a historic trade agreement between China and Pakistan was signed. Following this, diplomatic meetings were fairly frequent. Their strategic cooperation started out due to a mutual need to counter the Soviet Union and India, but later gave birth to Economic cooperation as well. China supported Pakistan in the two wars against India, in 1965 and 1971, with military as well as economic help. These foundations further led to the creation of a Joint Committee for Economy, Trade and Technology in 1982. By the late 1980s, China started discussing possible sales of military equipment and related technology to Pakistan. In the year 1996, Jiang Zemin, the then Chinese President, made a state visit to Pakistan. During the visit, the decision to establish comprehensive friendship and cooperation between the two nations was taken. Relations, since then have continued to move smoothly along the same path. In 2005, China and Pakistan signed a landmark ‘Treaty of Friendship and Co-operation, whereby they committed that â€Å"Neither party will join any alliance or bloc which infringes upon the sovereignty, security and territorial integrity† of either nation. Also reiterated was the agreement that both parties â€Å"would not conclude treaties of this nature with any third party†[20]. Conclusion Hence, during the post Cold War era, China turned out to be Pakistans most significant strategic guarantor as far as India was concerned. It was also the source of initial design information for Pakistans nuclear arsenal and also assisted with building of the nuclear technology complex[21]. Since the late 1990s, economic concerns have gained prominence alongside the military-strategic aspect of the relationship; specifically, trade and energy have taken precedence. Over the years, frequent exchanges of high-level visits and contacts between the two countries have resulted in a number of bilateral trade agreements and investment commitments. A comprehensive free trade agreement was signed in 2008, giving each country unprecedented market access to the other. Trade between Islamabad and Beijing now hovers around $7 billion a year and both sides are set on raising the to $15 billion by 2010[22]. CHAPTER IV CHINAS â€Å"STRING OF PEARLS STRATEGY† PAKISTANS PLACE IN IT. Apart from their other characteristics, the outstanding thing about Chinas 600 million people is that they are â€Å"poor and blank.† This may seem a bad thing, but in reality it is a good thing. Poverty gives rise to the desire for change, the desire for action and the desire for revolution. On a blank sheet of paper free from any mark, the freshest and most beautiful pictures can be painted. Zedong Mao What is String of Pearls Strategy A string of pearls strategy is a strategic move which involves establishing a series of nodes of military and economic power throughout a region. Each node is a â€Å"pearl† in the string, enhancing the overall power of the parent nation S.E. Smith The â€Å"String of Pearls Strategy† is an excellent way to enfold a greater area of territory, thereby gaining more influence on the global stage, but it often evokes comment from other nations, who may be concerned that the string of pearls strategy is the first step in a serious takeover or military threat. Several things are included in a ‘String of Pearls Strategy. The first is increased access to airfields and ports. This may be accomplished by building new facilities or through establishing cordial relations with other nations to ensure access to their ports. In some cases, the strategy involves heavily subsidising construction of new ports and airfield facilities in other countries, with the understanding that these facilities will be made readily available as needed. Developing better diplomatic relations is also a crucial step in a ‘String of Pearls Strategy. Partly, this is undertaken to ensure that shipping lanes and airspace remain free and clear for that particular nation. It may also be used to soothe concerns about a rapidly expanding string of pearls, and to establish solid trade and export agreements which may ultimately benefit both nations. Since a string of pearls strategy may rely on linking a series of pearls, it is important to ensure that each pearl is also safe, and that it will not be threatened by neighbouring nations. Modernising military forces is the third component. A modern military can more effectively maintain and hold individual pearls, and it will also be prepared for various actions and exercises on the part of the parent nation. The modernised military also supports a countrys rise as a global power, and as a nation which commands respect. For nations which are slowly encircled in a string of said pearls, a string of pearls strategy can be upsetting. A country may also slowly take over shipping lanes, which is an issue of concern to nations which are not closely allied with it.[23] Chinas String of Pearl Strategy Chinas String of Pearl Strategy is driven by Chinas need to secure foreign oil and trade routes critical to its development. This has meant establishing an increased level of influence along sea routes through investment, port development and diplomacy. Chinas investments presently extend from Hainan Island in the South China Sea, through the littorals of the Straits of Malacca, including port developments in Chittagong in Bangladesh, Sittwe, Coco, Hianggyi, Khaukphyu, Mergui and Zadetkyi Kyun in Myanmar; Laem Chabang in Thailand; and Sihanoukville in Cambodia. They extend across the Indian Ocean, Sri Lanka, the Maldives, Pakistans Gwadar Port, and in islands within the Arabian Sea and into the Persian Gulf. Chinas Interests in the Indian Ocean Region Its String of Pearls[24] Thus, part of these developments includes the upgrading of airstrips, many supported with military facilities, such as the facility on Woody Island, close to Vietnam. These developments may be directed at shifting the balance of power within the Indian and Arabian Gulf, away from the traditional Indian government management to China. However, it needs to be backed up with regional diplomatic ties, which China must look at to dispense with the need to engage with India. The strategy has been developed partially in response to a lack of progress on the Kra Canal project in Thailand, which would directly link the Indian Ocean with the South China Sea. Isthumus of Kra Its Strategic Location for Chinas Shipping Lanes[25] The â€Å"string of pearls† strategy however provides a forward presence for China along the sea lines of communication that now anchor China directly to the Middle East. The question is, whether this strategy is intended purely to ensure secure supply lines and trade routes, or whether China will later use these in a bid to enforce regional supremacy. As long as Chinese interests remain benign, the â€Å"string of pearls† strategy remains the strongest pointer that China is strengthening its energy supply lines with the Middle East and embarking on a level of Southeast Asian trade. This would definitely result in the development of regional prosperity, that will come with Chinas these actions. If the strategy continues without the development of regional conflicts, the ASEAN trading bloc, with China at its heart, and the massive emerging markets of India and the other Southeast Asian nations close by, will develop and begin to rival that of the EU and the United States, and lessen Chinas dependence on these traditional export markets[26]. Why China Chose Pakistan as a Pearl The Peoples Republic of China is believed to be an ideological state wedded to the Communist ideology based on Marxism Leninism[27]. Chinas relations with other countries can be explained on the basis of two conceptual frameworks based on â€Å"Alliance Model† and on â€Å"United Front Model†[28]. However, with Pakistan, Chinas relations appear to be on the â€Å"Alliance Model†. This model sees Chinas foreign policy as â€Å"concerned with short problems, externally determined and reactive. It sees Chinas concern for security as the dominant theme of Chinas foreign policy†[29]. There is an immense desire in China to achieve the status of a Super Power. The first step towards that direction is to achieve a dominant position in Asia. The Indian sub-continent is one of the important areas in this region. In order to be a dominant power, China needs to have an effective dominance in the sub-continent. To this effect, India poses a challenge to China in the region. China is therefore keen to weaken India and who better than Pakistan can be utilised for this purpose by China[30]. USSR, which used to be a friend, guide and protector for China during the initial years of their formation in 1950, began to be considered as a rival and an unreliable ally by the end of the 1950s. Subsequent closeness of USSR with India and her attempts to befriend Pakistan in the 1960s, especially after the 1965 Indo Pak war, led to increased differences between the two countries. China was interested in preventing the Soviet Union from spreading its influence in Pakistan. Knowing that USSR could not befriend Pakistan at the cost of India, China decided to make friends with Pakistan with the aim of preventing the USSR from spreading its influence in South Asia using a powerful India[31]. Chinas strategic objectives in Pakistan stem from the fact that Xinjiang and Tibet are contiguous to the Indian sub-continent and China is still consolidating itself in these regions. Pakistan occupies certain areas of Kashmir which have immense strategic value in view of this. Pakistan occupied Kashmir (POK) is located in a region where China, India and Afghanistan meet together. The religious affinity between the people of Xinjiang and Pakistan along with the history of repeated revolts by the Xinjiang people against the Chinese government forced China to sign a boundary agreement with Pakistan in 1963 to acquire strategically important areas to keep the influence of the Pakistani fundamentalism away from the people of Xinjiang[32]. Proximity of Chinas Xinjiang Province Tibet Autonomous Region to POK[33] Pakistans geography was helpful in supporting Chinese positions in the North-East in the Chumby Valley (prior to formation of Bangladesh) and in the Ladakh region in the rear of Indian positions. Thus Pakistan d and still s decisively in the defence of Chinas southern flank resulting in close ties between the two countries. The proximity of the Indian sub-continent to Xinjiang and Tibet, Pakistans location in the sub continent and the affinity existing between the Muslims of Xinjiang and Pakistan are matters of great importance for China in its geo political calculations[34]. It could also be Chinas objective to keep things simmering in South Asia by exploiting the Indo Pakistan disputes so that they may weaken each other by confrontation, leaving adequate space for China to be effective in the region. All the above reasons have led to an increased proximity of the Chinese policies towards Pakistan. Conclusion Chinas bond with Pakistan allowed the former a greater sphere of influence in to South Asia, as well provided a bridge between the Muslim world and Beijing. Though, traditionally, the driving factor for China was a hedge against India and getting strategic leverage against India, relations with China gave Pakistan access to civilian and military resources also. To this day, the relationship between the two countries is of high strategic importance, the military relationship with China being the corner stone of Pakistans foreign policy. And in return, Pakistan is helpful in realising Chinas dream of establishing her influence over the globe. CHAPTER V GROWING ECONOMIC TIES BETWEEN PAKISTAN AND CHINA. To attract good fortune, spend a new penny on an old friend. an old Chinese proverb Though political relations hold the maximum importance between countries, the economic relations are also noteworthy and infact, in recent times, have become one of the most significant factors in determining a nations foreign relations policy. Broadly, the economic relations can be divided into two forms trade and aid. Historical Perspective of Economic Ties During the Han Dynasty, trade existed between Ancient China and Ancient India on camels and yaks along the silk route for almost 3,000 years[35]. Infact, the silk route connecting China and Pakistan was closed down in 1949 and was re-opened in 1967 between the two countries. After partition, trade with India came to a standstill for Pakistan. Hence, Pakistans search for a trading partner to sell jute and cotton in return of coal, iron, cement etc prompted Pakistan to establish economic relations with China[36]. Silk Route[37] Economic and cultural interaction between Pakistan and China began in the 1950s. In April 1955, the late Premier Zhou Enlai held talks with the then Pakistan Prime Minister, M. Ali, during the Bandung Conference, and both sides agreed to strengthen bilateral ties. In January 1963, China and Pakistan signed their fist trade agreement[38]. This was followed up with the â€Å"Cultural Agreement† between the two countries in 1965[39]. The bonding established between the two states has continued ever since, with both countries looking at closer ties with each other for respective benefits. The relations between Pakistan and China were restricted to trade relations till 1964, however, it was in 1965, for the first time, that Pakistan started receiving Chinese aid[40]. In 1978, the Karakoram Highway was officially opened to trade between both countries. In 1986, China and Pakistan reached a comprehensive nuclear cooperation agreement which resulted in a 300-megawatt nuclear power pla nt built with Chinese help in Punjab province, which was completed in 1999[41]. Chinas Recent Economic Involvement in Pakistan President Pervez Musharraf took over power of Pakistan in October 1999 and since then the economic aspect became a major factor in Pakistan-China relations. During his visit to China in January 2000, he laid a great deal of emphasis on economic cooperation and hence the economic relations between the two countries slowly began to improve, both in trade and investments. The Chinese side too reciprocated positively by enhancing economic activity between the two countries[42]. The Chinese Premier at that time, Zhu Rongji, while visiting Pakistan in May 2001, urged the two sides to â€Å"boost cooperation in agriculture, infrastructure, information technology and other fields under the principle of reciprocity and mutual benefit for achieving common prosperity†[43].During this visit, Pakistan and China signed six Agreements and one MoU (Memorandum of Understanding). The Chinese financial assistance to Pakistan at that time was roughly over one billion dollars. The six agreements included Economic and Technical Cooperation, Tourism Cooperation, Lease Agreement on Saindak Copper-Gold Project, Supply of Locomotives to Pakistan Railways, Supply of Passenger Coaches to Pakistan Railways, White Oil Pipeline and MoU between Chinas ZTE and Pakistan Telecommunications Co. Ltd. Besides, the most important aspect of increasing economic cooperation was that the Chinese Premier reiterated his support for the Gwadar deep sea port and the Mekran coastal highway pro jects[44]. Mekran Coastal Highway[45] During his visit to China in November 2003, President Musharrafs signed a â€Å"Joint Declaration on Direction of Bilateral Relations.† It was a road-map to determine the direction and scope of overall Pakistan-China bilateral relations in the future. It laid additional emphasis on increasing the economic cooperation between the two countries and institutionalising mechanisms for consolidating an all-round relationship[46]. In December 2004, the two countries signed seven agreements in the sectors of trade, communication and energy. They also formulated a framework for enhanced cooperation between them. These agreements revolved around enhancing the bilateral trade, further progress on preferential trade agreement, setting up of joint agro-based industries and increasing of Chinese investments in Pakistan[47]. In April 2005, as many as 21 agreements and MoUs were signed between the two countries. These included cooperation in economy, defence, energy, infrastructure, social sector, health, education, higher education, housing and various other areas. The two countries also signed a â€Å"Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Good Neighbourly Relations†[48]. In January 2006, the Early Harvest Programme was launched to encourage bilateral trade, under which China extended zero-rated tariffs on 767 items while Pakistan reciprocated by extending the facility on 464 items[49]. In November 2006, China and Pakistan signed a FTA (free trade agreement). As per the agreement, China and Pakistan would reduce the tariffs on all goods in two phases. The aim of the agreement is to eliminate tariffs on no less than 90 percent of products, both in terms of tariff lines and trade volume, within a reasonably short period of time and on the basis of taking care of the concerns of both sides[50]. The Early Harvest Programme, which had commenced in January 2006, was merged into the FTA[51]. Also, China vowed to help Pakistan in civil nuclear technology by building and helping in the Khusab Nuclear Programme providing technology to Pakistan for better maintenance of civil nuclear plants[52]. In 2009, Pakistan and China signed a number of agreements and MoUs. These included construction of Bunji Dam in the Northern Areas with a capacity of 7,000 Megawatts[53], provision of soft loans for space, space technology and alternate energy including an amount of U.S. $ 190 million to supply Pakistani satellite PAKSAT-1R, which will replace the present satellite PAKSAT-1 that has a useful life until 2011. This loan will cover 85 percent of project Strategic Relations Between China and Pakistan Strategic Relations Between China and Pakistan STRATEGIC RELATIONS BETWEEN CHINA AND PAKISTAN AND ITS IMPACT ON INDO PAK RELATIONS If your environment is changing, you must change with it. If you dont, you perish. Curtis E. Sahakian CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1. China is a modern developing country with good economic and political condition. It is the biggest ancient society with flair towards modern culture and values. China has very good relations with its neighbours like Pakistan. Pakistan was one of the first countries of the world to recognise China, and since then they have very good relations with each other. 2. Pakistan and China entered into a trade agreement in January 1963 which granted reciprocal Most Favoured Nation status in matters of commerce, trade and shipping. Trade between the border regions of China and Pakistan started in 1969 after the first protocol of trade was signed. This border trade has continued to grow with the patronage of both the countries. Further trade protocols have been signed over the years. The construction of the Karakoram Highway has helped to further trade and communication. Pakistan is an important country for China in trade. A lot of projects of economic development in Pakistan are in process with the co-operation of China which are creating lot ofjobs opportunityfor both Pakistan and China. METHODOLOGY STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM 4. This dissertation proposes to study and analyse the growing economic relations between Pakistan China, its impact on the security of India and to recommend measures to negate the same by India. HYPOTHESIS 5. Is the growing economic relations between Pakistan China having an adverse impact on the security of India? If yes, what actions should India take to negate them? JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY SCOPE 7. This study concentrates on analysing only the Economic relationship between Pakistan and China and the impact of the same on Indo Pak relations with special emphasis on Indias security. 8. The study is not looking into the military, diplomatic and nuclear relationship between the two countries and the impact these relations are having on Indias security and Indo Pak relations. METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION METHODS OF DATA ANALYSIS ORGANISATION OF THE DISSERTATION 11. It is proposed to study the subject in the following manner:- (a) Chapter II. Strategic Relationship and it scope. (b) Chapter III. Historical Perspective of strategic relations between Pakistan and China. (c) Chapter IV. Chinas â€Å"String of Pearls Policy† Pakistans place in it. (d) Chapter V. Growing economic ties between Pakistan and China. (e) Chapter VI. Security Issues for India. (f) Chapter VII. Recommendations to negate this strategic relationship by India. CHAPTER II STRATEGIC RELATIONSHIP AND ITS SCOPE Interest does not tie nations together; it sometimes separates them. But sympathy and understanding does unite them. -Woodrow T. Wilson No nation is an island. Because domestic policies are constantly affected by developments outside, nations are compelled to enter into dialogue with other nations or initiating entities or form alliance(s) for the purpose of enhancing their status internationally, or increasing their power or prestige and survival in the international system[1]. History The concept of strategic relations is quite old. Humans have been establishing governments and communicating with each other for thousands of years. However, it is generally agreed to that international relations truly began to emerge around the 15th century, when people started exploring the world and interacting with other governments and cultures. Organisations like the Dutch East India Company were among the first multinational corporations[2], while representatives of various European governments met with foreign governments to establish trade agreements and to discuss issues of mutual concern. The formal history of strategic relations is often traced back to the Peace of Westphalia of 1648, where the modern state system was developed. Westphalia instituted the legal concept of sovereignty. Westphalia encouraged the rise of the independent nation-state(s), the institutionalisation of diplomacy and armies[3]. This European system was then exported to the Americas, Africa, and Asia via colonisation and the standards of civilisation. The contemporary international system was eventually established through decolonisation after the Cold War. Definition There are many definitions of Strategic Relations written by numerous authors on the web world. Some relevant ones are as given below. Agreement between two or more entities to conduct specified activities or processes, to achieve specified objectives such as product development or distribution[4]. Strategic Relations refers to the collective interactions of the international community, which includes individual nations and states, inter-governmental organisations such as the United Nations, non-governmental organisations, multinational corporations, and so forth. The term is also used to refer to a branch of political science which focuses on the study of these interactions[5]. Strategic Relations is the study of the relations of states with each other and with international organisations and certain sub-national entities (e.g., bureaucracies and political parties). It is related to a number of other academic disciplines, including political science, geography, history, economics, law, sociology, psychology, and philosophy[6]. Strategic Relations is the study of the relations among states and other political and economic units in the international system. Particular areas of study within the field of international relations include diplomacy and diplomatic history, international law, body of rules considered legally binding in the relations between national states, also known as the law of nations[7]. Strategic Relations is the interaction between and among states, and more broadly, the workings of the international system as a whole. It can be conceived of either as a multidisciplinary field, gathering together the international aspects of politics, economics, history, law, and sociology, or as a meta-discipline, focusing on the systemic structures and patterns of interaction of the human species taken as a whole. Barry Buzan Strategic Relations is an area of knowledge based on political science, law, economy, sociology, philosophy, and other social sciences. Traditionally, it not only treats the relations between nation states, but also, International Organisations and non-state actors in the international arena, like non-governmental organisations, and multinational corporations[8]. What do Strategic Relations Mean Strategic Relationship represents the study of foreign affairs and global issues among states within the international system, including the roles of states, inter-governmental organisations (IGOs), non-governmental organisations (NGOs), international non-governmental organisations (INGOs), and multinational corporations (MNCs). It is both an academic and public policy field, and seeks to analyse as well as formulate the foreign policy of a particular state[9]. Apart from political science, Strategic Relations draws upon such diverse fields as economics, history, international law, philosophy, geography, sociology, anthropology, psychology, and cultural studies. It involves a diverse range of issues including globalisation, state sovereignty, ecological sustainability, nuclear proliferation, nationalism, economic development, global finance, terrorism, organised crime, human security, foreign interventionism and human rights. There are two main approaches to the field of International Relations. The first is the Realist or Pragmatist approach. This claims that conflict is inevitable and the best way to approach international relations is to be prepared to engage in conflicts and win. The second approach is the Structuralist approach and is symbolised by diplomacy, according to which conflict is not inevitable, focusing on the causes of conflict, stressing on the costs of conflict vis a vis possible gains. This school of thought has been heavily influenced by Galtungs theory of structural violence[10]. Broadly speaking, the two approaches to International Relations can be attributed to either side of the Atlantic: Realism is seen as a primarily American worldview while Structuralism is seen as typically European. Conclusion Considering the vast spectrum of the subject, Strategic Relations can become incredibly complex. The subject is also sometimes known as â€Å"foreign relations†. Specialists in this field staff diplomatic agencies abroad, provide consultation to businesses which are considering to establish branches overseas, and assist charitable non-governmental organisations with their missions. CHAPTER III HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF STRATEGIC RELATIONS BETWEEN PAKISTAN AND CHINA The opinions we hold of one another, our relations with friends and kinfolk are in no sense permanent, save in appearance, but are as eternally fluid as the sea itself. Marcel Proust Why Pakistan Chose to Align with China Pakistans attitude towards China is determined by its geography, economic constraints, domestic compulsions and the regional and international situation. The erstwhile fragmented shape of Pakistan, i.e. East and West Pakistan, had greatly contributed to the establishment of Pakistans close relations with China. Geographic constraints on account of Pakistans location, topography and the nature of its frontiers, gave rise to security problems for Pakistan. With the construction of highways connecting China and Pakistan, through Pakistan Occupied Kashmir, China acquired an easy approach to Pakistan. This turned out as a mixed blessing for Pakistan. So long as relations with China are friendly, there is no threat from the North. But in case of strained Sino Pak relations, there would be a grave threat from China[11]. Pakistani policy makers were conscious of this constraint and did express their fears in an unambiguous manner. President Ayub Khan wrote in his political autobiography:- West Pakistan is wedged in between three enormous powers with the Soviet Union at the top, the Peoples Republic of China in the North East, and India in the South and East. I know of no other small country which has the somewhat dubious distinction of having three such mighty neighbours[12]. A number of considerations prompted Pakistan to strengthen its economic and trade ties with China. Firstly, like China, Pakistan was a developing country and the two countries faced common problems in the field of agriculture and industrialisation. China had successfully solved the problem of water logging, salinity and floods, which Pakistan could benefit from. Secondly, the aid offered by China was very attractive as it carried rock-bottom low rate of interest or no interest at all. Thirdly, China showed interest in setting up heavy industries in Pakistan Taxila Industrial Complex, assisted by China is an example. Fourthly, trade with China was beneficial to Pakistan as the balance of the trade generally went in favour of Pakistan and rarely in favour of China[13]. Fifthly, 1962 Sino India war turned Pakistan towards China to counter India. Sixthly, US support to India increased after the Sino India war to counter China, this was resented by Pakistan, which China exploited to w ean the influence of US from Pakistan and get a foothold in the Indian subcontinent. And finally, the Kashmir issue. Pakistan adjudged its relations with other countries in terms of their attitude towards the Kashmir issue. Pakistan regarded China as a friend since its hostility towards India in 1962 and its involvement in the Kashmir issue thereafter[14]. The location of Tibet and Xinjiang on the north of the Indian subcontinent places China in a position to intervene militarily in a confrontation between India and Pakistan. The Karakoram Highway can be used by China for sending arms and ammunition and even the forces. In 1971, Indo Pakistan war, it was used for this purpose[15]. With a view to combating India, Pakistan has been seeking a political counterweight against it. Finding that China was interested in undermining Indias political influence in the Afro Asian world, Pakistani leaders thought that China could serve as a counterweight against India. It was, therefore, a Pakistani objective to seek Chinas political support against India[16]. Karakoram Highway[17] History of Sino Pak Relations After Pakistans creation in 1947, Pakistans relations with China were in a dormant state. In 1950, Pakistan officially recognised the Peoples Republic of China, and broke off ties with Taiwan. Bilateral relations were further strengthened at the Bandung Conference in 1955[18], when talks between the two heads of state played an important role in promoting, understanding and paving way for friendly relations and mutual assistance between the two countries. In 1961, Pakistan furthered its relations with China when it voted in favour of Chinas restoration rights in the UN. Sino-Pak relations got a shot in the arm, with deteriorating Sino-Indian relations which resulted in a war in 1962. China and Pakistan consequently met and agreed on the border between them, in 1963[19], and the Karakoram Highway was consequently built, connecting Chinas Sinkiang (Xinjiang-Uygur) Autonomous Region with the Northern Areas of Pakistan. In 1963 itself, a historic trade agreement between China and Pakistan was signed. Following this, diplomatic meetings were fairly frequent. Their strategic cooperation started out due to a mutual need to counter the Soviet Union and India, but later gave birth to Economic cooperation as well. China supported Pakistan in the two wars against India, in 1965 and 1971, with military as well as economic help. These foundations further led to the creation of a Joint Committee for Economy, Trade and Technology in 1982. By the late 1980s, China started discussing possible sales of military equipment and related technology to Pakistan. In the year 1996, Jiang Zemin, the then Chinese President, made a state visit to Pakistan. During the visit, the decision to establish comprehensive friendship and cooperation between the two nations was taken. Relations, since then have continued to move smoothly along the same path. In 2005, China and Pakistan signed a landmark ‘Treaty of Friendship and Co-operation, whereby they committed that â€Å"Neither party will join any alliance or bloc which infringes upon the sovereignty, security and territorial integrity† of either nation. Also reiterated was the agreement that both parties â€Å"would not conclude treaties of this nature with any third party†[20]. Conclusion Hence, during the post Cold War era, China turned out to be Pakistans most significant strategic guarantor as far as India was concerned. It was also the source of initial design information for Pakistans nuclear arsenal and also assisted with building of the nuclear technology complex[21]. Since the late 1990s, economic concerns have gained prominence alongside the military-strategic aspect of the relationship; specifically, trade and energy have taken precedence. Over the years, frequent exchanges of high-level visits and contacts between the two countries have resulted in a number of bilateral trade agreements and investment commitments. A comprehensive free trade agreement was signed in 2008, giving each country unprecedented market access to the other. Trade between Islamabad and Beijing now hovers around $7 billion a year and both sides are set on raising the to $15 billion by 2010[22]. CHAPTER IV CHINAS â€Å"STRING OF PEARLS STRATEGY† PAKISTANS PLACE IN IT. Apart from their other characteristics, the outstanding thing about Chinas 600 million people is that they are â€Å"poor and blank.† This may seem a bad thing, but in reality it is a good thing. Poverty gives rise to the desire for change, the desire for action and the desire for revolution. On a blank sheet of paper free from any mark, the freshest and most beautiful pictures can be painted. Zedong Mao What is String of Pearls Strategy A string of pearls strategy is a strategic move which involves establishing a series of nodes of military and economic power throughout a region. Each node is a â€Å"pearl† in the string, enhancing the overall power of the parent nation S.E. Smith The â€Å"String of Pearls Strategy† is an excellent way to enfold a greater area of territory, thereby gaining more influence on the global stage, but it often evokes comment from other nations, who may be concerned that the string of pearls strategy is the first step in a serious takeover or military threat. Several things are included in a ‘String of Pearls Strategy. The first is increased access to airfields and ports. This may be accomplished by building new facilities or through establishing cordial relations with other nations to ensure access to their ports. In some cases, the strategy involves heavily subsidising construction of new ports and airfield facilities in other countries, with the understanding that these facilities will be made readily available as needed. Developing better diplomatic relations is also a crucial step in a ‘String of Pearls Strategy. Partly, this is undertaken to ensure that shipping lanes and airspace remain free and clear for that particular nation. It may also be used to soothe concerns about a rapidly expanding string of pearls, and to establish solid trade and export agreements which may ultimately benefit both nations. Since a string of pearls strategy may rely on linking a series of pearls, it is important to ensure that each pearl is also safe, and that it will not be threatened by neighbouring nations. Modernising military forces is the third component. A modern military can more effectively maintain and hold individual pearls, and it will also be prepared for various actions and exercises on the part of the parent nation. The modernised military also supports a countrys rise as a global power, and as a nation which commands respect. For nations which are slowly encircled in a string of said pearls, a string of pearls strategy can be upsetting. A country may also slowly take over shipping lanes, which is an issue of concern to nations which are not closely allied with it.[23] Chinas String of Pearl Strategy Chinas String of Pearl Strategy is driven by Chinas need to secure foreign oil and trade routes critical to its development. This has meant establishing an increased level of influence along sea routes through investment, port development and diplomacy. Chinas investments presently extend from Hainan Island in the South China Sea, through the littorals of the Straits of Malacca, including port developments in Chittagong in Bangladesh, Sittwe, Coco, Hianggyi, Khaukphyu, Mergui and Zadetkyi Kyun in Myanmar; Laem Chabang in Thailand; and Sihanoukville in Cambodia. They extend across the Indian Ocean, Sri Lanka, the Maldives, Pakistans Gwadar Port, and in islands within the Arabian Sea and into the Persian Gulf. Chinas Interests in the Indian Ocean Region Its String of Pearls[24] Thus, part of these developments includes the upgrading of airstrips, many supported with military facilities, such as the facility on Woody Island, close to Vietnam. These developments may be directed at shifting the balance of power within the Indian and Arabian Gulf, away from the traditional Indian government management to China. However, it needs to be backed up with regional diplomatic ties, which China must look at to dispense with the need to engage with India. The strategy has been developed partially in response to a lack of progress on the Kra Canal project in Thailand, which would directly link the Indian Ocean with the South China Sea. Isthumus of Kra Its Strategic Location for Chinas Shipping Lanes[25] The â€Å"string of pearls† strategy however provides a forward presence for China along the sea lines of communication that now anchor China directly to the Middle East. The question is, whether this strategy is intended purely to ensure secure supply lines and trade routes, or whether China will later use these in a bid to enforce regional supremacy. As long as Chinese interests remain benign, the â€Å"string of pearls† strategy remains the strongest pointer that China is strengthening its energy supply lines with the Middle East and embarking on a level of Southeast Asian trade. This would definitely result in the development of regional prosperity, that will come with Chinas these actions. If the strategy continues without the development of regional conflicts, the ASEAN trading bloc, with China at its heart, and the massive emerging markets of India and the other Southeast Asian nations close by, will develop and begin to rival that of the EU and the United States, and lessen Chinas dependence on these traditional export markets[26]. Why China Chose Pakistan as a Pearl The Peoples Republic of China is believed to be an ideological state wedded to the Communist ideology based on Marxism Leninism[27]. Chinas relations with other countries can be explained on the basis of two conceptual frameworks based on â€Å"Alliance Model† and on â€Å"United Front Model†[28]. However, with Pakistan, Chinas relations appear to be on the â€Å"Alliance Model†. This model sees Chinas foreign policy as â€Å"concerned with short problems, externally determined and reactive. It sees Chinas concern for security as the dominant theme of Chinas foreign policy†[29]. There is an immense desire in China to achieve the status of a Super Power. The first step towards that direction is to achieve a dominant position in Asia. The Indian sub-continent is one of the important areas in this region. In order to be a dominant power, China needs to have an effective dominance in the sub-continent. To this effect, India poses a challenge to China in the region. China is therefore keen to weaken India and who better than Pakistan can be utilised for this purpose by China[30]. USSR, which used to be a friend, guide and protector for China during the initial years of their formation in 1950, began to be considered as a rival and an unreliable ally by the end of the 1950s. Subsequent closeness of USSR with India and her attempts to befriend Pakistan in the 1960s, especially after the 1965 Indo Pak war, led to increased differences between the two countries. China was interested in preventing the Soviet Union from spreading its influence in Pakistan. Knowing that USSR could not befriend Pakistan at the cost of India, China decided to make friends with Pakistan with the aim of preventing the USSR from spreading its influence in South Asia using a powerful India[31]. Chinas strategic objectives in Pakistan stem from the fact that Xinjiang and Tibet are contiguous to the Indian sub-continent and China is still consolidating itself in these regions. Pakistan occupies certain areas of Kashmir which have immense strategic value in view of this. Pakistan occupied Kashmir (POK) is located in a region where China, India and Afghanistan meet together. The religious affinity between the people of Xinjiang and Pakistan along with the history of repeated revolts by the Xinjiang people against the Chinese government forced China to sign a boundary agreement with Pakistan in 1963 to acquire strategically important areas to keep the influence of the Pakistani fundamentalism away from the people of Xinjiang[32]. Proximity of Chinas Xinjiang Province Tibet Autonomous Region to POK[33] Pakistans geography was helpful in supporting Chinese positions in the North-East in the Chumby Valley (prior to formation of Bangladesh) and in the Ladakh region in the rear of Indian positions. Thus Pakistan d and still s decisively in the defence of Chinas southern flank resulting in close ties between the two countries. The proximity of the Indian sub-continent to Xinjiang and Tibet, Pakistans location in the sub continent and the affinity existing between the Muslims of Xinjiang and Pakistan are matters of great importance for China in its geo political calculations[34]. It could also be Chinas objective to keep things simmering in South Asia by exploiting the Indo Pakistan disputes so that they may weaken each other by confrontation, leaving adequate space for China to be effective in the region. All the above reasons have led to an increased proximity of the Chinese policies towards Pakistan. Conclusion Chinas bond with Pakistan allowed the former a greater sphere of influence in to South Asia, as well provided a bridge between the Muslim world and Beijing. Though, traditionally, the driving factor for China was a hedge against India and getting strategic leverage against India, relations with China gave Pakistan access to civilian and military resources also. To this day, the relationship between the two countries is of high strategic importance, the military relationship with China being the corner stone of Pakistans foreign policy. And in return, Pakistan is helpful in realising Chinas dream of establishing her influence over the globe. CHAPTER V GROWING ECONOMIC TIES BETWEEN PAKISTAN AND CHINA. To attract good fortune, spend a new penny on an old friend. an old Chinese proverb Though political relations hold the maximum importance between countries, the economic relations are also noteworthy and infact, in recent times, have become one of the most significant factors in determining a nations foreign relations policy. Broadly, the economic relations can be divided into two forms trade and aid. Historical Perspective of Economic Ties During the Han Dynasty, trade existed between Ancient China and Ancient India on camels and yaks along the silk route for almost 3,000 years[35]. Infact, the silk route connecting China and Pakistan was closed down in 1949 and was re-opened in 1967 between the two countries. After partition, trade with India came to a standstill for Pakistan. Hence, Pakistans search for a trading partner to sell jute and cotton in return of coal, iron, cement etc prompted Pakistan to establish economic relations with China[36]. Silk Route[37] Economic and cultural interaction between Pakistan and China began in the 1950s. In April 1955, the late Premier Zhou Enlai held talks with the then Pakistan Prime Minister, M. Ali, during the Bandung Conference, and both sides agreed to strengthen bilateral ties. In January 1963, China and Pakistan signed their fist trade agreement[38]. This was followed up with the â€Å"Cultural Agreement† between the two countries in 1965[39]. The bonding established between the two states has continued ever since, with both countries looking at closer ties with each other for respective benefits. The relations between Pakistan and China were restricted to trade relations till 1964, however, it was in 1965, for the first time, that Pakistan started receiving Chinese aid[40]. In 1978, the Karakoram Highway was officially opened to trade between both countries. In 1986, China and Pakistan reached a comprehensive nuclear cooperation agreement which resulted in a 300-megawatt nuclear power pla nt built with Chinese help in Punjab province, which was completed in 1999[41]. Chinas Recent Economic Involvement in Pakistan President Pervez Musharraf took over power of Pakistan in October 1999 and since then the economic aspect became a major factor in Pakistan-China relations. During his visit to China in January 2000, he laid a great deal of emphasis on economic cooperation and hence the economic relations between the two countries slowly began to improve, both in trade and investments. The Chinese side too reciprocated positively by enhancing economic activity between the two countries[42]. The Chinese Premier at that time, Zhu Rongji, while visiting Pakistan in May 2001, urged the two sides to â€Å"boost cooperation in agriculture, infrastructure, information technology and other fields under the principle of reciprocity and mutual benefit for achieving common prosperity†[43].During this visit, Pakistan and China signed six Agreements and one MoU (Memorandum of Understanding). The Chinese financial assistance to Pakistan at that time was roughly over one billion dollars. The six agreements included Economic and Technical Cooperation, Tourism Cooperation, Lease Agreement on Saindak Copper-Gold Project, Supply of Locomotives to Pakistan Railways, Supply of Passenger Coaches to Pakistan Railways, White Oil Pipeline and MoU between Chinas ZTE and Pakistan Telecommunications Co. Ltd. Besides, the most important aspect of increasing economic cooperation was that the Chinese Premier reiterated his support for the Gwadar deep sea port and the Mekran coastal highway pro jects[44]. Mekran Coastal Highway[45] During his visit to China in November 2003, President Musharrafs signed a â€Å"Joint Declaration on Direction of Bilateral Relations.† It was a road-map to determine the direction and scope of overall Pakistan-China bilateral relations in the future. It laid additional emphasis on increasing the economic cooperation between the two countries and institutionalising mechanisms for consolidating an all-round relationship[46]. In December 2004, the two countries signed seven agreements in the sectors of trade, communication and energy. They also formulated a framework for enhanced cooperation between them. These agreements revolved around enhancing the bilateral trade, further progress on preferential trade agreement, setting up of joint agro-based industries and increasing of Chinese investments in Pakistan[47]. In April 2005, as many as 21 agreements and MoUs were signed between the two countries. These included cooperation in economy, defence, energy, infrastructure, social sector, health, education, higher education, housing and various other areas. The two countries also signed a â€Å"Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Good Neighbourly Relations†[48]. In January 2006, the Early Harvest Programme was launched to encourage bilateral trade, under which China extended zero-rated tariffs on 767 items while Pakistan reciprocated by extending the facility on 464 items[49]. In November 2006, China and Pakistan signed a FTA (free trade agreement). As per the agreement, China and Pakistan would reduce the tariffs on all goods in two phases. The aim of the agreement is to eliminate tariffs on no less than 90 percent of products, both in terms of tariff lines and trade volume, within a reasonably short period of time and on the basis of taking care of the concerns of both sides[50]. The Early Harvest Programme, which had commenced in January 2006, was merged into the FTA[51]. Also, China vowed to help Pakistan in civil nuclear technology by building and helping in the Khusab Nuclear Programme providing technology to Pakistan for better maintenance of civil nuclear plants[52]. In 2009, Pakistan and China signed a number of agreements and MoUs. These included construction of Bunji Dam in the Northern Areas with a capacity of 7,000 Megawatts[53], provision of soft loans for space, space technology and alternate energy including an amount of U.S. $ 190 million to supply Pakistani satellite PAKSAT-1R, which will replace the present satellite PAKSAT-1 that has a useful life until 2011. This loan will cover 85 percent of project